Download Using POCS Method of Problem-Solving

Introduction to Psychology
Chapter 1
Michael L. Farris
Psychology 101
Foundations of Modern Psychology
Psychology – The science of behavior and mental processes. It is
derived from two Greek roots: psyche (meaning mind) and logos
(meaning study or knowledge).
Serious inquiries into psychology can be traced to ancient Greece, when
philosophers began to record their thoughts about the nature of mind
and behavior.
Psychology remained largely an interest of philosophers, theologians, and
writers for several thousand years. It did not begin to emerge as a
scientific discipline until the late 19th century.
The founding of psychology as an independent science is usually credited
to a German scientist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). He established the
first laboratory to study psychology in Germany in 1879, when
psychology made the transition from philosophy to science. (Please see
page 41 in your text for details)
2
Structuralism
STRUCTURALISTS used introspection to analyze experience
into basic “elements” or “building blocks”, dealing with
the structure of mental life.
Wilhelm Wundt: Careful observation, measurement
Introspection (“looking inward”): Careful self-examination
and reporting of one’s conscious experience –what one is
perceiving, feeling, thinking, or sensing at each particular
moment in time.
For example, Wundt would expose people to a visual or
auditory stimulus, a light or a sound, and ask them to
report their conscious reactions to the stimulus (what it
sounded like, how long it lasted, how it felt). This resulted
in subjective disagreements between observers.
Introspection still plays a role in studies of hypnosis,
meditation, problem solving, moods, and other topics. (p.5)
3
Functionalism
William James: Studies how the mind
functions to adapt us to our environment.
He saw consciousness as:
 an ever changing stream
 flowing
 adapting
 evolving
 learning
Please see page 6 for more information.
4
Behaviorism
 John B. Watson: Challenged functionalism by
proposing the study of overt, observable behavior
(p.6).
 Ivan Pavlov: Conditioning (a learned reaction to
a certain stimulus) can be used to explain most
behavior.
 B.F. Skinner: Our behavior is controlled by
rewards, or positive reinforcers. Skinner believed
that positive reinforcement could encourage
desirable behavior.
 COGNITIVE BEHAVIORISM combines thinking
and environmental control to explain and control
5
behavior.
Gestalt Psychology
Max Wertheimer: Emphasizes the study of



thinking
learning
perception
in whole units, not by analysis into parts (p.7).
Gestalt psychologists believe that the “whole is
greater than the sum of its parts”. For
example, when you see a large number of
black objects flying overhead, you instantly
recognize them as a flock of birds flying in
formation.
6
Psychodynamic Psychology (p.9)
Sigmund Freud
 internal conflicts
 unconscious forces (represented by the
id, the ego, and the super-ego).
 Freud theorized that many unconscious
thoughts are threatening, and are
therefore repressed. Sometimes they
are revealed by dreams, emotions, or
slips of the tongue.
7
Humanistic Psychology
 Free will
 Emphasize the value of self-awareness and of
becoming an authentic person by being true to
oneself. They also stress the creative
potentials of individuals and their ability to
make choices that enhance their lives with
meaning and purpose.
 differs sharply from the views of behaviorism
and psychoanalytic psychology, each of which
believes that behavior is determined by forces
beyond our control (determinism).
 (Please see page 10 in your text for details)
8
Areas of Emphasis
 Psychiatrist = medical degree (M.D.).
 Psychologist = Ph.D.
 Some School psychologists hold a
Master’s Degree or an Ed.S.
(educational specialist) degree.
 Page 16 in your text describes many
kinds of psychologists and what they
do.
9
Research Methods
 Basic research seeks knowledge for the
sake of knowledge, and adds to the
base of what is known about the field.
 Applied research is done to solve
immediate practical problems, such as
finding a way to make people feel and
function better.
10
The Scientific Method
A method of inquiry involving careful
observation and the use of experimental
methods. The steps of the Scientific
Method are:
1.Observation
2.Define Problem
3.Propose Hypothesis
4.Gather Evidence
5.Test Hypothesis
6.Reject or Retain Hypothesis
7.Publish Results
8.Theory Building
(Please see page 21-22 in your text for details)
11
Research Methods
 Naturalistic (p.24) Observation-observe behavior as it
unfolds in a natural setting. Often plagued by the
observer effect problem.
 Correlational method (p.25)-making measurements to
discover relationships between events.
 Experimental (p.26) method-use the technique of
controlled experimentation. Used to find cause and
effect relationships (Basic or Pure Research).
 Clinical method (Coon text, pgs. 20-24)-the study of
psychological problems and therapies in clinical settings
(Applied Research).
 Survey (p.23) method-the use of questionnaires to poll
large groups of people.
12
Causation/Correlation
Correlational relationships are NOT always Causal relationships.
Two things may be correlated (It is windy and rainy today)
without being causal (the wind caused the rain).

Correlation is not causation. The fact that two variables are
correlated, even highly correlated, doesn’t mean that one
causes the other.

A positive correlation means that increases in one measure
(more time playing video games) are associated with
INCREASES in another (more time spent indoors).

A negative correlation means that increases in one
measure (more time playing video games) are associated
with DECREASES in the other (less time spent playing with
13
your sister). (Please see page 25-26 in your text for details)
Experiments
 An Experimental Group is made up of
humans or animals whose behavior is
investigated in an experiment.
 A Control Group is the group of
subjects which is exposed to all
experimental conditions or variables
except the independent variable.
Please see pages 26-27 for more information.
14
Experiments
 Independent Variable - In an experiment, the
condition being investigated as a possible cause of
some change in behavior. The values that this variable
takes do not depend on any other condition; they are
chosen by the experimenter.
 Dependent Variable - In an experiment, the
condition (usually a behavior) that is affected by the
independent variable.
 Placebo – an inactive substance given in the place
of a drug in psychological research or by physicians
who wish to treat a complaint by suggestion.
 (Please see page 26-27 in your text for details)
15
Survey Methods

A population is an entire group of people
belonging to a particular category (for
example, all college students or all married
women).
 A sample is a subpart of a larger
population that either accurately reflects
characteristics of the whole population (a
representative sample) or does not accurately
reflect characteristics of the whole population
(a biased sample).
(Please see page 23 in your text for details)
16
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is based upon four basic
principles:
1. Few “truths” transcend the need for
empirical testing. Question everything.
2. Evidence varies in quality.
3. Authority or claimed expertise does not
automatically make an idea true.
4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.
(Please see pages 32-35 in your text for details)
17