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Key Concepts Alleles are different versions of a gene. The genotype is the combination of alleles in an organism. The phenotype is the way the alleles are expressed. Inherited traits in the genotype are expressed in the phenotype. Punnett squares are used to predict the possible allele combinations in the offspring of parents with known genotypes. They are used to predict and analyze genotypic and phenotypic ratios and frequencies. Mendelian genetic crosses include monohybrid (single-trait) crosses and dihybrid (two-trait) crosses; they can be traced using Punnett Squares. Non-Mendelian genetic crosses do not follow the same patterns of inheritance as Mendelian crosses; they include crosses for traits that are coded for by more than two alleles, or by alleles displaying codominance or incomplete dominance. In higher organisms, meiosis produces gametes (sex cells) which contain half the number of chromosomes of the original parent cell (i.e., haploid cells). Eukaryotic multicellular organisms reproduce sexually by combining two gametes containing homologous chromosomes (one set of chromosomes from each parent) during fertilization. Crossing over during meiosis allows for the reshuffling of genetic combinations between individual homologous chromosomes in order to produce unique offspring. Sexual reproduction creates variety in the gene pool because DNA is inherited from both parents, resulting in new combinations of alleles. There are a variety of techniques used to study the genomes of organisms. DNA fingerprinting is the process of comparing individual DNA sequences to determine if samples have similar patterns. Genetic modifications, including transformation by DNA recombinant technology (plasmids and host bacterial cells), are used to study genetic disorders. Bioinformatics is the process of using computational techniques to organize and analyze nucleotide and amino-acid sequences to gain insights into their functions, origins, and changes over time. DNA and RNA probes are used in experiments to label nucleic-acid sequences for chromosomal analysis. Karyotyping stains the chromosomes to visually analyze them and search for possible genetic disorders. Fundamental Questions How are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring predicted? Why is meiosis significant to sexual reproduction? What techniques are used to study the genomes of organisms?