Download Topic 1 Cells Powerpoint Worksheet

The cell
Topic 1
Introduction
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The study of cells is called Cytology
The cell is the smallest functional unit of life
Cell theory
Prokaryote vs Eukaryote
Cell parts and their functions
Normal cell reproduction
1.1 Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of
_______________________.
2. Cells are the ___________ units of life.
3. All cells come from ______________ cells
Contributors to part 1
• ________________first described cells in
1665 using microscope he built.
• A few years later, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
sees living cells and calls the______________.
• In 1838, Matthias Schleiden states that
____________ are made of cells.
• In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that animals
are made of cells.
Contributors to part 3
• _____________, in the 1880’s, chicken broth
experiment showed that living organisms
would not _______________y appear.
Functions of life
• All organisms, whether single cell (unicellular)
or multicellular, carry out all the functions of
life.
• Metabolism
nutrition
• Growth
excretion
• Reproduction
• Response
• Homeostasis
• Metabolism – all the ________ ________that
occur in an organism. Energy conversion
• Growth may be limited but is always there.
• Reproduction involves ____________
molecules being passed to offspring.
• Responses to __________ in the environment.
• Homeostasis is maintenance of constant
internal ________________.
• Nutrition provides compounds to convert to
____________.
• Excretion is the ________ of unneeded or
toxic chemicals from an organism.
Cells and Size
• Cells are small enough to usually need a
microscope to study them.
• _____________ microscope is the most
common and uses light passing through the
cells to see them.
• ______________ microscopes use electrons
to form an image and have greater
magnification than light microscopes.
Relative size
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Cells (eukaryotes) 100 micrometers um
Organelles
10 um
Bacteria
1 um
Viruses
100 nanometers nm
Membranes
10 nm
Molecules
1 nm
Calculating size
• Formula
Magnification = size of the________/ actual
size
Limiting cell size
• The surface area of a cell, compared to the
volume of the cell, limits how large a cell will
get.
• The amount of_____________a cell needs to
take in, as well as the amount of ________
and heat that a cell needs to get rid of,
depends on the ___________ of the cell.
• The surface of the cell, the ______________,
controls how fast this can occur.
• As a cell gets larger in volume, its surface area
also increases, but at a much ________ rate.
• Volume involves ________ the radius while
surface area involves __________ the radius.
• This means that the larger a cell gets, the
smaller the surface area to volume ratio.
• Eventually, the volume gets so large that the
surface area can’t handle the traffic in and out
and the cell stops ____________.
Cell reproduction and Differentiation
• Single cell (unicellular) organisms need to
reproduce to create new organisms.
• Multicellular organisms need to create new
cells to grow and replace _____________ or
old cells.
• New cells in multicellular organisms need to
______________, which means change into a
particular type of cell.
• All cells have the same DNA, but they use or
______________ different parts of it to become
different types of cells.
• Once they become specialized, some cells (nerve,
muscle) lose the ability to _________ themselves.
• Different types of cells can accomplish more as a
group than they could as individuals, the group
can do more than the sum of its parts.
• This is referred to as an __________ __________
Stem Cells
• There are cells within organisms that retain
their ability to ________ and ____________
into different types of cells.
• These cells are called Stem Cells
• Scientists discovered pluripotent
or____________stem cells in the early 1980s.
• Stem cells can produce different types of cells
and also more stem cells.
Stem Cell Research
• ____________ _________is using stem cells
to grow cells to replace cells damaged through
disease or accident.
• ____________ and ___________ are two
diseases being treaded with nerve cells grown
from stem cells.
• Pancreatic cells are being grown to treat
Diabetes
Tissue specific Stem Cells
• Certain tissue types have their own stem cells.
• _____________ treated with blood stem cells.
• ______________ disease treated with photo
receptor cells in the eye.
Ethical issues
• Pluripotent stem cell research is being done
using stem cells from embryos through
_____________fertilization.
• Some argue that this is taking a life.
1.2 Cell Structure
Prokaryotes
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Much ______ than eukaryotes- 1 um or less.
Much _______than eukaryotes- no organelles.
Appeared on Earth ________.
__________ are the major members of this
group.
Prokaryote structures
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Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Flagella – not all have them
Pili
Ribosomes
Nucleoid region
Cell Wall and Plasma Membrane
• Cell wall ________ and maintains _____ of cell
• Made of a carbohydrate-protein material
called _____________________.
• Plasma membrane is just _______the cell wall.
• Controls movement of material in and out of
the cell and plays a role in binary fission.
• Inside the membrane is the cytoplasm. No
________________ in cytoplasm.
Pili and flagella
• Pili are hair like growths on the outside of the
cell, used for _____________ as well as
reproduction.
• Some prokaryotes have a flagellum or flagella
(plural) which are longer than pili and are used
for ________________.
Ribosomes
• All Prokaryotes have them.
• Site of ____________ synthesis.
• Smaller than Eukaryote ribosomes, 70s vs 80s
Nucleoid Region
• The area (no compartment) where the
_________ circular DNA chromosome is located.
• Prokaryote DNA is not attached to __________
like eukaryote DNA are.
• Some prokaryotes also contain _________, small
circular pieces of DNA that are separate from the
main chromosome.
• Plasmids replicate independently of the main
chromosome and are not needed for day to day
activities.
Binary Fission
• Prokaryotes divide by process called binary
fission.
• First the chromosome (DNA) is ___________.
• The two daughter chromosomes attach to
different areas of the plasma membrane.
• The cell elongates, fibers called
___________separate the two chromosomes,
then the cell divides into two identical
daughter cells.
Eukaryote Animal Cell
Eukaryotes
• Size ranges from 5-100 um
• Contain ______________, membrane bound
structures which perform specific functions
for the cell.
Eukaryote Plant Cell
Eukaryote Organelles
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Endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes
Lysosomes ( not usually found in plant cells)
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Chloroplasts ( only in plants and algae)
Centrosomes
vacuoles
• Cytoplasm – the area inside the plasma
membrane. The fluid part is called the
___________.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – A series of
tubes/channels that _____________ materials
throughout the cell.
• Two types – Smooth ER and Rough ER
Smooth ER
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Contains ____________ on its surface which:
Production of lipids and phospholipids
Production of _______ hormones
Detoxification of drugs in the _________
Storage of ___________ ions in muscle cells
Release of glucose by _________
Rough ER
• Contain ____________ on their surface which
give a rough appearance.
• The ribosomes of the Rough ER make proteins to
be transported _______ of the cell.
• There are ribosomes not attached to the Rough
ER which float freely in the cytosol.
• These ________ ribosomes make proteins to be
used by the cell.
• Ribosomes are composed of two units of
_______ that are made in the nucleolus
Lysosomes
• Lysosomes – sacs of ___________ (hydrolytic)
enzymes, made by the __________________,
that help break down proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and nucleic acids.
• They attach to old organelles or materials
brought into the cell by _________________.
Golgi Apparatus
• Made of flattened sacs called ____________.
• It collects, modifies, packages and distributes
materials made by the cell.
• The _____ side of the Golgi apparatus is near
the Rough ER and it receives the products of
the ER.
• These products leave the Golgi Apparatus in
small sacs called __________, at the _______
side.
Mitochondria
• Rod shaped organelle close in size to a ________
• Contain their own DNA, a _________
_________chromosome, similar to bacterial cells.
• Contain their own ___________ that are 70s,
similar to bacteria.
• They have a _________ membrane, the outer
being smooth and the inner having many folds
called ___________.
• Inside the inner membrane is called the _______.
Mitochondria
• The area between the two membranes is
called the inner membrane space.
• The folds (cristae) allow for increased
________ ______ for the reactions of the
mitochondria to take place.
• The reactions of the mitochondria are called
___________ ____________and create
molecules called _____.
Mitochondria
Nucleus
• _________ membrane enclosed area, called the
nuclear envelope, where the DNA is located.
• Contains _______ to allow movement into and
out of the nucleus.
• DNA is in pieces called _______________.
• Different ___________ have different numbers of
chromosomes.
• DNA is the ___________ material of the cell and
allows traits to be passed to offspring.
• When not dividing, DNA is in a form called
____________, which is DNA and proteins called
____________.
• Where the DNA wraps around 8 histones, an area
is formed called a ________________.
• Most eukaryote cells have a single nucleus.
• Some, like _____ ______cells, have no nucleus.
• Most nuclei also contain a dark area called a
____________ which makes ribosomes.
Chloroplast
• Found only in algae and plant cells
(_________________).
• Surrounded by a double membrane and about
the size of a bacteria.
• Has its own DNA and 70s ribosomes, just like
the Mitochondria.
• Contain flattened sacs called ____________
where the light absorption part of
__________________ occurs.
• Thylakoids are in stacks called Grana/ Granum
• The fluid part of the chloroplast is called
____________ which contains enzymes for
photosynthesis.
• Like Mitochondria, Chloroplasts can reproduce
themselves independently of a cell.
Chloroplast
Centrosome
• Found in all eukaryotic cells.
• Consists of a pair of ______________ at right
angles to each other.
• Centrioles make _____________ which provide
structure and allow movement.
• Also important for cell division.
• Some higher evolved plants produce
microtubules even though they lack centrioles.
• Located close to the ____________.
Vacuoles
• Membrane bound ____________ organelles
made by the Golgi Apparatus.
• Store many different substances including
food, water, waste, and toxins.
• Plant cells have a huge one filled with water
and enzymes, allows __________ for the
plant.
Prokaryote vs Eukaryote
Eukaryote Plant vs Animal cells
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Animal cell
cell wall
no cell wall
chloroplasts
no chloroplasts
Large central vacuole small or no vacuoles
carbs stored as starch carbs stored as glycogen
no centrioles
centrioles
Fixed angular shape
rounded shape
Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
• Surrounds the outside of animal cells,
composed of ___________ fibers and
glycoproteins.
• Allows cells to __________ to each other.
• Allows ___________________ and
coordinated action between cells
ECM
1.3 Membrane Structure
History
• Since 1915, scientists have known membranes
are made of _________ and ______________.
• In 1935, Davson-Danielli model suggested a
phospholipid __________ covered on both
sides by a thin layer of protein.
• In 1972, Singer-Nicolson model suggested
proteins were inserted into the phospholipid
bilayer and not a continuous layer.
• They believed the phospholipids were ______,
meaning they were very loosely attached to
each other and could move around, and the
proteins formed a _________ pattern within
the bilayer.
• Most of the new evidence came from the use
of the ____________ microscope.
Phospholipids
• The main “backbone” of the membrane is
made of a __________ layer of phospholipids.
• Each phospholipid is composed of a three
carbon molecule called _____________.
• Two of the carbons have ______ ______(lipid)
molecules attached to them.
• The third carbon is attached to a highly
_______ alcohol/phosphate group.
• The fatty acids are non-polar and not soluble
in water. (__________________)
• The alcohol/phosphate group is polar and
soluble in water. (______________)
• This causes the phospholipids to align
themselves with their polar “heads” ________
and their non-polar “tails” ___________.
Phospholipid
Cholesterol
• Membranes must be fluid or __________ to
function properly.
• At various locations in the hydrophobic, or tail
region of animal cells, there are cholesterol
molecules.
• They allow membranes to be properly flexible
at a large range of __________________.
• _______ membranes do not have cholesterol.
Proteins
• It is the proteins found in and on the
membranes that allow for the great ________
of membrane function.
• There are two major types of membrane
proteins, __________ and ______________.
• Integral proteins are ________________,
meaning they have both polar and non-polar
regions.
Proteins
• These proteins will have their non –polar
hydrophobic regions near the ________ of the
membrane (by the tails) and their polar
hydrophilic regions near the edges.
• Peripheral proteins are attached to the
__________ of the membrane, often attached
to an integral protein.
Protein Functions
• There are many different proteins which have 6 general
functions:
• Sites for __________ binding – have a specific shape
exposed to the outside that will only fit a specific
hormone. When hormone attaches, it changes the
______ of the protein, relaying a message inside the cell
• Enzymatic action – proteins act as enzymes to catalyze
reactions, attached to outside or inside of the
membrane
• Cell adhesion – allow cells to attach to each other
permanently or temporarily. Gap and tight junctions
Protein Function
• Cell to cell communication - proteins with
______________ attached that provide
identification for different species.
• Channel for ____________ transport – allow
substances to travel through the membrane
from ________________concentration.
• Pump for active transport – moves substances
through membrane by changing shape using
_____ for energy. Moves from ____________
1.4 Membrane Transport
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Passive and Active Transport
Passive Transport
• Does ______ require energy
• Movement is from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
• Usually referred to as moving ________the
concentration gradient.
• Osmosis (water), or diffusion
Simple Diffusion
• Particles moving from high to low
concentration. In biology, usually across a
________________.
• Examples: ____________ moving from the
blood into cells, __________ ________
moving from cells into the blood.
Facilitated Diffusion
• Movement across a membrane is facilitated by
a __________ carrier ___________.
• Carrier protein changes __________ but does
not require energy.
Osmosis
• Osmosis is a type of diffusion that involves the
passive movement of __________ across a
partially ______________ membrane.
• Water will move from an area of lower solute
concentration (______________) to an area of
higher solute concentration (_____________).
Ease of movement
• The _____ and ________ of a molecule
determines how easily it can cross a
membrane.
• Small, non-polar molecules cross _________
(gases)
• Large, polar molecules cross hardest.(______
and _________)
Active Transport
• Requires work to be performed and therefor
requires ___________ (ATP)
• It is the movement of a substance __________
the concentration gradient, from an area of
low concentration to an area of high
concentration.
• Example: animal cells have a high
concentration of ___inside and high
_____outside.
Sodium-Potassium Pump
• 5 stages involved in moving Na+ and K+ against
their concentration gradients:
1- A specific integral protein binds to ___sodium
ions inside the cell
2. The binding of the sodium to the protein
causes_________________to occur. ATP
becomes ____.
3- Phosphorylation causes the protein to change
shape, __________ the Na+ from the cell
4- ____ Phosphate ions outside the cell bind to
the protein, which causes the _________ of the
phosphate.
5- The loss of the phosphate returns the protein
to its original shape, __________ the K+ into the
cell.
The Na+ P+ pump is used extensively in _______
signal transport.
Endo and Exocytosis
• These are processes that allow ___________
substances in and out of cells.
• Endo is into the cell, while exo is out of the
cell.
• Both processes depend on the _________ of
the cell membrane.
Endocytosis
• The membrane of a cell surrounds and engulfs
an object, leaving it within a ____________
inside the cell.
Exocytosis
• The opposite of endocytosis, how the cell
exports proteins is a good example of how this
works.
• 1- Proteins produced by ribosomes on the
_________enter the lumen (inside) of the ER
• 2- Protein exits the ER inside a _________ and
enters the cis end of the Golgi Apparatus.
• 3- As protein moves through Golgi, it is
_________ then exits the trans end inside a
vesicle.
• 4. This vesicle moves to the cell membrane
and fuses to release (__________) the protein
from the cell.
• https://youtu.be/DuDmvlbpjHQ
1.5 The Origin of Cells
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Cell Theory:
All organisms are made of ____________cells
Cells are the ___________ unit of life
All cells come from other pre-existing cells
• There are some problems with and exceptions
to this theory.
• How did the first cell arise?
• _____________ showed that cells don’t
spontaneously arise. His experiment:
• He boiled nutrient broth
• He put sterile broth into 3 flasks, one open,
one closed and one with a water trap type
seal. He allow time for _____________.
• A sample from each flask was transferred to
solid growth media (petri dish) and incubated.
• The only flask that showed growth was the
__________ one.
Exceptions to normal
• Multi ___________ cells of striated muscle,
fungal hyphae and giant algae.
• Very large cells with no compartments
• ___________
• Where did the first cells come from.
Before that discussion, we need to understand
the transition from simple prokaryotes to
complex eukaryotes.
Endosymbiotic Theory
• Presented by Lynn Margulis in 1981
• About 2 billion years ago, a ___________ cell
began living inside another cell that had
engulfed it (_______________)
• This eukaryotic cell and the bacterial cell
began a ______________ relationship.
• Over time, the bacteria cell evolved into a
__________________.
Evidence
• Mitochondria are: about the size of bacteria
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divide by binary fission
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divide independently of their cell.
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have their own 70s ribosomes
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have their own DNA, single
strand loop like bacteria
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have a double membrane from
being engulfed.
• ______________ also show the same
evidence for endosymbiotic theory.
• The protist ________ gets its energy by
ingesting organic matter. When it eats algae,
it starts photosynthesis to get energy.
• The slug Elysia chlorotica is brown and eats
things for energy when it is __________.
• As adults they are green due to eating algae
and using them to do ________________.
• _______of mitochondria more closely
resembles that of bacteria than eukaryotes.
1.6 Cell Division
• The life of a cell is described by the _______
_______.
• In most cases, a cell will ______, then divide
into two identical cells called__________cells.
• The cell cycle has a growth part as well as a
division part.
Cell Cycle
Interphase
• ____________ phase of most cell cycles
• Composed of three parts, G1 (Gap 1) , S and G2
(Gap 2).
• G1 major event is _________ of the new cells.
• S major event is _____________ of the DNA
• G2 major events are further growth as well as
preparing for __________ (M phase). DNA
starts to condense, organelles are copied,
microtubules begin to form.
Cyclins
• Cyclins are _________ that help control a cells
movement through the cell cycle.
• Cyclins bind to cyclin-dependent protein
kinases (CDKs), enabling them to act as
____________.
• These enzymes allow the cell to move from G1
to S and from G2 to M.
• Some cells will stop at G1 and stay there (G0),
such as _________ and muscle cells.
Mitosis – Nuclear division
• During Mitosis, the replicated chromosomes
are divided into two ___________ groups in
preparation for cell division (_____________).
• The two new cells should be identical to each
other and are called _____________ cells.
• Prior to Mitosis beginning, the DNA _______
to form chromosomes.
• Chromatin – nucleosomes- solenoids – looped
domains - supercoil
chromosomes
• During Interphase, each DNA molecule is
wrapped around histone proteins to form
_____________.
• Nucleosomes coil into solenoids, then form
looped domains and finally supercoil to
chromosomes.
• After replication, during the S phase of
interphase, each chromosome has an identical
twin, attached to the original by a____________.
Each molecule is called a ______________ and
together they are called _________ chromatids.
Phases of Mitosis
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Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Prophase
• ____________ fibers continue to supercoil
and form _______________.
• Nuclear envelope (membrane) ____________
and _____________ disappears.
• Mitotic ____________ (fibers) forms.
• Each chromosome has a region of its
centromere called a ______________ that the
fibers attach to.
• Centrosomes move to opposite poles
Metaphase
• Chromosomes move to the _______ (equator)
of the cell, this is called the metaphase ______.
• The chromosomes __________ lie on the plate
• The microtubules, or spindle fibers do this.
• The centrosomes are now at opposite poles.
Anaphase
• The shortest phase begins when the two sister
chromatids of each chromosome ________.
• The chromatids, now chromosomes, move
toward _________ poles, toward centrosomes.
• The shortening of the microtubules causes the
movement.
• At the end of this phase, each pole of the cell
has a complete, ________ set of chromosomes.
Telophase
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Chromosomes are at the ________.
Nuclear envelope reforms
Chromosomes begin to __________.
_____________ reappears
Spindle fibers disappear
The cell elongates and is ready for
______________
Cytokinesis
• In animal cells, a ___________ furrow forms
• In plant cells, a cell _________ forms
• Both processes result in the cell being divided
into two ___________ cells with identical
nuclei
• Growth, development of embryos, tissue
repair and asexual reproduction all involve
____________
Animal cell
Plant cell
Cancer
• Cancer is when the cell cycle runs out of control.
• The mass of cells created is called a __________.
• A __________ tumor is located at the original site
of formation.
• A secondary tumor forms as a result of
______________ or spreading to other areas.
• Mitotic ________ is ratio of cells undergoing
mitosis compared to the number not. The larger
the number, the faster the cancer is growing.
Causes of Cancer
• Areas of a gene can change (mutate) to
become ______________.
• Oncogenes contribute to cancer formation.
• Oncogenes can be formed by outside agents
called ______________.
• Cigarette smoke is a mutagen.
• There is a _____________ correlation
between smoking and cancer.