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HUMAN BIOLOGY (BIOL 100A: Spring Semester) TEST 1 NOTES OUTLINE
Instructor: Mark Eberle (Albertson Hall 424, 628–5264, [email protected])
SCIENCE
Scientific Literacy
Anecdotal Evidence
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
I) Observe and Question
II) Develop a Hypothesis (or Hypotheses)
III) Conduct an Experiment
A) Variables
1) Independent Variable
2) Dependent Variable
B) Sufficiently Large Sample Size
C) Experimental Treatment
D) Experimental Control
E) Statistical Analysis
1) Significance
F) Repeatability
G) Avoiding Bias
1) Random Samples
2) Blind Experimental Design
a) Placebo
● Placebo Effect
3) Double-blind Experimental Design
IV) Draw Conclusions about the Hypothesis (and Make Revisions)
V) Theory
VI) Correlation Studies
CHEMISTRY
I) Elements
A) Atoms
1) Protons (+)
2) Electrons (e–)
a) Electron Shells = Electron Orbitals
b) Electron Shell Capacities
● First electron shell: maximum of 2 electrons
● All other electron shells: maximum of 8 electrons each
II) Molecules
III) Ions
A) Oxidation
B) Reduction
IV) Chemical Bonds
A) Ionic Bonds
B) Covalent Bonds
V) Water (H2O)
A) Polar Molecules
B) Hydrogen Bonds (H Bonds)
1) Hydrophilic Compounds
2) Hydrophobic Compounds
C) pH = Hydrogen Ion (H+) Concentration
1) pH Scale (1–7 = Acid; 7–14 = Base; 7 = Neutral)
a) Acids
b) Bases
2) Buffers
VI) Organic Compounds
A) Carbohydrates
1) Simple Carbohydrates (Sugars)
a) Monosaccharides
● Glucose
b) Disaccharides
● Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
2) Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
a) Plant Starches
b) Glycogen (“Animal Starch”)
● Weight Loss Patterns
c) Cellulose (= Dietary Fiber)
d) Chitin
B) Lipids
1) Triglycerides (Fats and Oils) = Glycerol (alcohol) + 3 Fatty Acids
a) Saturated Fatty Acids
b) Unsaturated Fatty Acids
● Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
● Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
c) Hydrogenated Fatty Acids
● Trans Fats
2) Waxes
3) Phospholipids
4) Sterols
a) Cholesterol
b) Steroid Hormones
C) Proteins
1) Amino Acids
2) Polypeptides
3) Protein Structure (dictates protein function)
a) Primary Structure
b) Secondary Structure
c) Tertiary Structure
d) Quaternary Structure
4) Denature Protein
D) Nucleic Acids
1) Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): Double Helix
2) Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): Single Strand
3) Nucleotides
a) Sugar (Ribose in RNA; Deoxyribose in DNA)
b) Phosphate
c) Nitrogenous Bases
● Adenine (DNA, RNA)
● Cytosine (DNA, RNA)
● Guanine (DNA, RNA)
● Thymine (DNA only)
● Uracil (RNA only)
4) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
5) Dinucleotides
a) NAD+, FAD+ ( NADH, FADH2)
b) NADP+ ( NADPH2)
CELLS
I) Cellular Structures
A) Plasma Membrane
1) Selectively Permeable
2) Phospholipid (structure)
a) Hydrophobic Phosphate Region
b) Hydrophilic Fatty Acid Region
3) Membrane Proteins (functions)
a) Receptor Protein
b) Recognition Protein
c) Transport Protein
d) Enzymatic Protein
4) Other Membrane Molecules
a) Carbohydrates
b) Cholesterol
B) Cell Wall
1) Cellulose
2) Chitin
C) Nucleus
1) Nucleolus
2) Prokaryotic Cells
3) Eukaryotic Cells
D) Cytoplasm (= Cytosol)
1) Ribosomes: Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) + Proteins
2) Endomembrane System (comprised of membranes like plasma membrane)
a) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
● Rough ER
● Smooth ER
b) Golgi Complex (= Golgi Bodies)
c) Vesicle
3) “Bacteria-like” Organelles (have their own DNA)
a) Mitochondria (Mitochondrion)
b) Plastids
● Chloroplasts
4) Cytoskeleton
a) 4 Functions
b) Flagella
c) Cilia
CELL PROCESSES
I) Movement of materials across the plasma membrane
A) Passive Transport
1) Diffusion
a) Osmosis
● Isotonic solution
● Hypertonic solution
● Hypotonic solution
b) Facilitated diffusion
● Carrier (transport) membrane protein
B) Active Transport
1) Carrier (transport) membrane protein
2) Energy (ATP, high-energy electrons)
C) Coupled channels: active transport followed by facilitated diffusion
1) Proton pump (proton = H+)
a) In photosynthesis and cellular respiration, high-energy e– power first transport protein in
active transport of H+ through membrane
b) As H+ passes through second membrane protein (passive transport) ADP + PO3– → ATP
D) Endocytosis
1) Vesicle
E) Exocytosis
1) Vesicle
II) Metabolism = chemical reactions (synthesis or breakdown)
A) Activation energy
B) Catalyst
1) Enzymes
2) Enzyme function
a) Active site
b) Substrate
3) Enzymes have 4 features.
a) Enzymes are specific for the substrate(s) they react with.
b) Enzymes are not changed chemically by the reaction.
c) Enzymes can be inhibited.
d) Enzymes need to be activated.
C) ATP
1) ADP + PO3– → ATP requires energy
2) ATP → ADP + PO3– releases energy
D) Photosynthesis
1) Chloroplast
2) CO2 + H2O + energy (light photons)  C6H12O6 + O2
3) Energy harvesting chemical reactions:
a) Photons (units of light energy) are absorbed by chlorophyll molecule.
b) Two high-energy electrons (e–) leave chlorophyll molecule.
c) These e– power a proton pump, which generates ATP from ADP and PO3–.
d) H2O molecules are split: e– (replace chlorophyll e–); H+ (used elsewhere); O2 (released).
e) The e– and a proton (H+) are donated to a dinucleotide electron carrier molecule (NADP+).
4) Carbohydrate production:
a) CO2 molecules enter Calvin-Benson Cycle (a set of chemical reactions).
b) With enzymes, ATP, and NADPH, 6 CO2 are used to ultimately produce a carbohydrate.
E) Cellular Respiration
1) C6H12O6 + O2  CO2 + H2O + energy (ATP).
2) Glycolysis (set of 10 chemical reactions in cytoplasm)
a) C6H12O6 (glucose) + 2 ATP → 2 pyruvate (3 C each) + 4 ATP + high-energy electrons (e–)
3) Fermentation (anaerobic respiration in cytoplasm)
a) No ATP production, but allows glycolysis to continue producing ATP
b) Alcohol fermentation in yeast and plants
● Pyruvate + NADH (dinucleotide e– carrier) → ethanol + CO2
o Ethanol accepts e– from NADH, which can be used again in glycolysis
c) Lactate fermentation animals (including humans) and bacteria
● Pyruvate + NADH (dinucleotide e– carrier) → lactic acid
o Lactic acid accepts e– from NADH, which can be used again in glycolysis
4) Aerobic respiration (oxidative respiration) in mitochondria
a) Pyruvate loses 1 carbon (as CO2) and enters Citric Acid Cycle (set of chemical reactions)
● Pyruvate → CO2 + 2 ATP + high-energy electrons (e–)
5) Electron Transport System (= Electron Transport Chain)
a) Dinucleotide electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) release e– and H+ to proteins on
membrane of mitochondrion
b) Energized e– go through a “stair-step” set of reactions to progressively lower energy levels,
releasing energy that drives a proton pump → 32 (34) ATP
c) H+ + e– + O2 → water (H2O)
● Oxygen is the electron acceptor, just like ethanol and lactic acid in fermentation
6) Together, glycolysis and aerobic respiration produce 36 (38) ATP from each glucose molecule