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A Role for Mitochondria in the Establishment and Maintenance of the Maize Root Quiescent Center Keni Jiang, Tracy Ballinger, Daisy Li, Shibo Zhang, and Lewis Feldman* Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720 Mitochondria in the oxidizing environment of the maize (Zea mays) root quiescent center (QC) are altered in function, but otherwise structurally normal. Compared to mitochondria in the adjacent, rapidly dividing cells of the proximal root tissues, mitochondria in the QC show marked reductions in the activities of tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes. Pyruvate dehydrogenase activity was not detected in the QC. Use of several mitochondrial membrane potential (DCm) sensing probes indicated a depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane in the QC, which suggests a reduction in the capacity of QC mitochondria to generate ATP and NADH. We postulate that modifications of mitochondrial function are central to the establishment and maintenance of the QC. Embedded in all angiosperm root apices is a population of slowly dividing cells that together form a region known as the quiescent center (QC). Depending on the species, the QC varies in size from four cells in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) to upward of 1,000 cells in the root apex of maize (Zea mays). On a biochemical level, one of the few known properties of the QC is its relatively oxidized redox status, which is reflected by the low concentrations in the QC of the reduced forms of glutathione and ascorbic acid, the two principal redox-regulating compounds in living systems (Jiang et al., 2003). Cells comprising the QC spend a prolonged period in G1, dividing, on average, about once every 200 h (Clowes, 1961). Because divisions are infrequent and result in both a self-renewed QC cell and a sister cell that leaves the QC and repopulates the initial pool, a number of workers suggest that QC cells should be viewed as stem cells (Barlow, 1997; Ivanov, 2004; Jiang and Feldman, 2005). How this balance between selfrenewing divisions and differentiation is regulated is not understood. However, recent work with animal stem cells points to redox state as having a central role in modulating this equilibrium (Smith et al., 2000). We have hypothesized that the QC is established and maintained as a consequence of auxin that is polarly transported to the root tip, where it can accumulate to relatively high levels leading to the oxidized state in the QC (Jiang and Feldman, 2003, 2005). How auxin influences redox status is not known. But what is clear is that oxidative stress can compromise many * Corresponding author; e-mail [email protected]; fax 510–642–4995. The author responsible for distribution of materials integral to the findings presented in this article in accordance with the policy described in the Instructions for Authors (www.plantphysiol.org) is: Lewis Feldman ([email protected]). Article, publication date, and citation information can be found at www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/doi/10.1104/pp.105.071977. 1118 cellular activities, including, as has been reported, mitochondrial function (Jiménez et al., 1998). Depending on the severity of the oxidized stress, mitochondria can respond in different ways, including a reduction in the flux capacities of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, thereby affecting the synthesis of ATP and NADH/ NADPH and, as a consequence, affecting energydependent activities, including cell division. Stressinduced reductions in mitochondrial function have been visualized through the use of dyes whose extent of accumulation in mitochondria reflects mitochondrial activity (Smith et al., 2000). Thus, given the known oxidized redox status of the QC and reports of compromised mitochondrial functioning under conditions of oxidative stress, we investigated whether alterations in mitochondrial activity occur in the QC. Here we report differences between mitochondria in the slowly dividing QC cells compared to mitochondria in the adjacent, rapidly dividing cells of the proximal meristem (PM). We suggest that these changes in mitochondrial function may underlie the establishment and maintenance of the QC and, as well, link auxin and oxidative stress. RESULTS Three approaches were taken to characterize mitochondria in the QC: (1) examining mitochondrial ultrastructure; (2) evaluating mitochondrial physiological activity; and (3) evaluating the levels, status, and processing of specific mitochondrial transcripts (either nuclear or mitochondrial encoded). QC Mitochondria Show Normal Structure Mitochondria in the QC were characterized and compared to like organelles in the adjacent, rapidly dividing cells bordering on the proximal face of the QC (the PM; Jiang and Feldman, 2005; Fig. 1, A and B). QC mitochondria are egg-to-oval shaped, numerous, Plant Physiology, March 2006, Vol. 140, pp. 1118–1125, www.plantphysiol.org Ó 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists Downloaded from on June 18, 2017 - Published by www.plantphysiol.org Copyright © 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. Mitochondria and Maize Root Quiescent Center Establishment oxidized in the presence of peroxides (Collins et al., 2000) and that we previously used to assess QC redox status (Jiang et al., 2003). QCs are treated with the reduced form of H2DCFDA, which when supplied is colorless. As the dye is oxidized, it fluoresces in UV light and thereby points to a relatively oxidizing microenvironment in the QC (Fig. 2A). Mitochondrial Membrane Potential Differs in the QC Figure 1. Longitudinal sections of the maize root tip. A, Light micrograph indicating the locations of the QC, PM, and root cap (RC). B to F, Transmission electron micrographs of the maize root tip. B, Longitudinal section of the maize root tip/QC at low magnification. The RC was removed just prior to fixation. QC cells marked with an asterisk (*) were examined further at higher magnification (C and D). Note cell files converging in the QC. C, QC cell in longitudinal section. Note large number of round-to-oval-shaped mitochondria (arrow) encircling the nucleus (N). D, High-power view of C showing that QC mitochondria (arrow) have intact double membranes and cristae. E and F, Cells from the PM. Note the relatively thin walls (indicative of a relatively high rate of mitosis), and dumbbell-shaped mitochondria (arrow) clustered about the nuclei. and encircle the nucleus (Fig. 1, C and D). A continuously intact, double membrane is evident, as are cristae (Fig. 1D). As in the QC, mitochondria in the PM encircle the nucleus (Fig. 1E). However, in contrast to QC mitochondria, PM mitochondria frequently assumed a dumbbell shape (in approximately two-thirds [eight] of the roots examined ultrastructurally), and this is interpreted as indicative of their capacity to divide (Fig. 1, E and F). A delimiting double membrane is evident, as are cristae that extend inward, about one-third to one-half of the diameter of the mitochondrion (Fig. 1F, arrow). Reconfirmation of the Oxidized Status of the QC We reconfirmed the relatively oxidized redox status of the QC through the use of H2DCFDA, a dye that is JC-9 and MitoTracker Orange are two mitochondrial membrane potential (DCm) sensing probes that are used to indicate the cellular energy levels of mitochondria (Duchen et al., 1993; Sureau et al., 1993; Cossarizza et al., 1994; Castedo et al., 1996). Both probes accumulate in mitochondria that maintain a membrane potential. MitoTracker Orange is particularly useful because once it enters the mitochondrion it reacts with thiols on proteins and peptides to form an aldehyde-fixable conjugate. An absence or low fluorescence of the dye in the mitochondrion indicates a depolarization of the inner mitochondrial membrane and thereby suggests a reduction in the capacity of these mitochondria to generate ATP (Waterhouse et al., 2001). When QCs are treated with these probes, mitochondria in cells at the margins of the QC accumulate the dye and fluoresce, whereas mitochondria in central QC cells show no fluorescence (Fig. 2, B–E). The pattern of mitochondrial staining is nearly identical for both probes and thereby points to an absence or marked reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential (DCm) in central QC cells and suggests, therefore, a decrease in the capacity of these cells to generate energy-rich reductants. TCA Cycle Enzyme Activities and Substrates Are Lowered in the QC We assayed the activities of a number of TCA cycle enzymes, including pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (KDH), succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), and malic enzyme (ME). Except for PDH, activities for all other enzymes are detected in both QC and PM extracts. When normalized to total protein per milligram of tissue, individual enzymes were 3 to 10 times more active in the PM compared to the QC (Table I). Notable is the absence of any measurable PDH activity in the QC. Pyruvate concentrations also differed between the two tissues; pyruvate was approximately 8 to 10 times more concentrated in the PM (12 6 2 mM mg21) compared to the QC (1.5 6 0.7 mM mg21). Expression of Nuclear-Encoded Transcripts for Mitochondrial Proteins Is Reduced in the QC Based on the observation that nuclear-encoded transcripts of mitochondrial proteins may be altered by stress (Giegé et al., 2005), we investigated whether the reduced activities in the QC of TCA cycle enzymes (Table I) could be related to reductions in Plant Physiol. Vol. 140, 2006 1119 Downloaded from on June 18, 2017 - Published by www.plantphysiol.org Copyright © 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. Jiang et al. Figure 2. Whole mounts of QCs treated with various probes. Scale bar 5 100 mm (except in C where the scale bar 5 25 mm). A, Treated with carboxyH2DCFDA (C-400). Bright staining in the center of the QC points to the relatively oxidized redox status of this region. B and C, Whole mounts of a QC treated with the mitochondrial marker dye, Mitotracker Orange. Fluorescing mitochondria occur at the margins, but not in the center, of the QC. C, Highmagnification view of B showing a strip of cells extending from the outside edge of the QC to the center (*). Fluorescing mitochondria are evident clustered around nuclei (arrow). D and E, Whole mounts of two different QCs treated with the dye JC-9. Fluorescing mitochondria (numerous small white dots) occur in cells at the margins, but not in the center (*), of the QC. Bright, diffuse staining is artifact. transcription. We measured the levels of transcripts in the QC for three nuclear-encoded TCA cyclerelated proteins (or protein subunits; PDH, SDH, and ME) and compared their levels to those in the adjacent PM. We found that all three transcripts show a 20% to 30% reduction in expression in the QC (relative to the total mRNA) compared to their levels in the adjacent PM (Table II). QC and PM Cells Have a Similar Editing Status for Mitochondrial mRNAs Mitochondrial transcripts (mtRNA) are typically extensively edited, which involves the conversion of cytidines to uridines (Gagliardi and Gualberto, 2004). We investigated the status of mtRNA editing in the QC by examining specific mitochondrial transcripts for which editing has already been reported in maize, namely, ribosomal protein S13 (RSP13; GenBank accession no. AF079549; Williams et al., 1998) and ATP synthase subunit 9 (ATP9; GenBank accession no. AF390542; Grosskopf and Mulligan, 1996). In both the QC and PM, ATP9 is completely edited, as has previously been reported for this transcript in other maize tissues (suspension-cultured cells and seedlings; Grosskopf and Mulligan, 1996). We sequenced five QC cDNA ATP9 clones; all showed complete editing at the seven editing sites characterized in maize by Grosskopf and Mulligan (1996). In contrast to ATP9, RSP13 was incompletely edited (Table III). This gene has six C-to-U editing sites, of which Williams et al. (1998) report that 70% of the examined 30 cDNA clones were edited in all six sites, and 3% Table I. Comparison of TCA enzyme activities in the QC and PM Activities are measured spectrophotometrically (see ‘‘Materials and Methods’’ for specifics on each enzyme) and normalized to 100 mg of total protein. Values are means 6 SD (n 5 3). For each enzyme, mean values of the QC and PM were compared using Student’s t test and found to be significant at the 95% confidence level (P , 0.05). OD/100 mg Total Protein TCA Enzyme ME MDH PDH KDH SDH PM 0.113 1.37 0.005 0.058 0.035 6 6 6 6 6 QC 0.026 0.12 0.002 0.008 0.007 1120 0.030 6 0.006 0.185 6 0.014 None detected 0.005 6 0.002 0.006 6 0.001 PM/QC 3.8 7.4 – 10 5.8 Plant Physiol. Vol. 140, 2006 Downloaded from on June 18, 2017 - Published by www.plantphysiol.org Copyright © 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. Mitochondria and Maize Root Quiescent Center Establishment Table II. Comparison of transcript levels between the QC and PM using quantitative reverse transcription-PCR Ratio of Transcript Level (QC/PM)a Gene Name Iron sulfur subunit of SDH precursor NAD-dependent ME, mitochondrial precursor PDH E1 a-subunit AUX1 0.77 0.70 0.8 2.21 6 6 6 6 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.23 a After normalizing all samples to the Kan 1.2 gene. All ratios are averages of two independent experiments (n 5 2) 6SD. were completely unedited. We sequenced six RSP13 cDNA clones from both the QC and PM (a total of 12). Two of the six (33%), either from the PM or the QC, were incompletely edited (none showed no editing), whereas four of the six (66%) were completely edited in both the QC and PM. Thus, we conclude that the mtRNA editing process is similar in both the QC and PM and is consistent with other reports of the editing status of these mitochondrial transcripts in maize (Grosskopf and Mulligan, 1996; Williams et al., 1998). DISCUSSION The maize QC is composed of cells that spend an extended period of time (.180 h) in G1. The reasons for this prolonged G1 are not known, but because these cells are under oxidative stress (Jiang et al., 2003; Fig. 2A), we considered the possibility that reactive oxygen species may mediate the induction of G1 cell cycle arrest, as has been reported for other systems (Hutter et al., 1997; Reichheld et al., 1999; Smith et al., 2000; Boonstra and Post, 2004). In mice, sublethal doses of hydrogen peroxide induce a rapid, transient growth arrest in fibroblasts by activating cell cycle checkpoints at G1 and S (Barnouin et al., 2002), and in human colonic CaCo-2 cells, Noda et al. (2001) report that mild intracellular redox imbalance can inhibit the G1-S transition. Toward elucidating the mechanism of G1 arrest in the QC, we considered reports noting that mitochondria are very sensitive to oxidative stress (Fujie et al., 1993), which can cause damage to mitochondrial components (Valls et al., 1994; Beyer et al., 1996; Brady et al., 2004), leading to a disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential (DCm), an attendant impairment in mitochondrial function, and cell cycle arrest (Yoon et al., 2005). Based on this scenario, we investigated whether G1 cell cycle arrest in the QC is associated with an alteration in mitochondrial function, including alterations in membrane potential (DCm), mitochondrial physiology, and perhaps even structure. An Absence of Membrane Potential Suggests That QC Mitochondria Are Compromised in Their Capacity to Generate ATP The absence of uptake and/or oxidation of mitochondrial membrane marker dyes (JC-9 and Mito- Tracker Orange) into the central region of the QC (Fig. 2, B–E) points to a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (DCm; Duchen et al., 1993; Sureau et al., 1993; Cossarizza et al., 1994; Castedo et al., 1996) and thereby suggests a reduced capacity of these mitochondria to generate ATP and NADH (Duchen, 2004). These conclusions are supported by earlier work reporting a lower energy status of the QC compared to cells in the adjacent PM (Jiang et al., 2003). Because dividing cells generally must maintain a minimal ATP content to satisfy the G1-S checkpoint energy requirement (Sweet and Singh, 1995), redox regulation of ATP production in the mitochondria may be central to the maintenance of the QC; less ATP/NADH could underlie the decrease in cell division in the QC. An Oxidized Redox Status Correlates with Lower TCA Enzyme Activities in the QC Our data (Table I) showing reductions in the activities of TCA cycle enzymes in QC mitochondria compared to mitochondria in more rapidly dividing, adjacent root meristem cells (PM) support the view that an oxidized environment can correlate with changes in activities of mitochondrial proteins (Sweetlove et al., 2002). In Arabidopsis, Sweetlove et al. (2002) have investigated the impact of oxidative stress on mitochondria and have shown that, under oxidizing conditions, proteins associated with the TCA cycle were less abundant and that oxygen consumption was significantly decreased, suggesting less ATP/NADH production. Based on the key role that PDH plays in providing the entry substrate (acetyl-CoA) for the TCA cycle, we suggest that the decrease in PDH activity (none detected in the QC; Table I) may be central to an overall reduction in TCA cycle activities in the QC. Exactly how PDH activity might be reduced is not known. However, the complexity and multiple subunits of PDH and its specific cofactor requirements make it a possible target in the QC for oxidative inactivation, as has already been demonstrated Table III. Editing status of ribosomal protein 13 (RSP13) mitochondrial transcripts in the QC and PM 1, C-to-T change at the editing site; 2, no editing at that position in the cDNA. Clone ID QC-1 QC-2 QC-3 QC-4 QC-5 QC-6 PM-1 PM-2 PM-3 PM-4 PM-5 PM-6 Reported Edited Site 44 65 95 139 295 326 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 Plant Physiol. Vol. 140, 2006 1121 Downloaded from on June 18, 2017 - Published by www.plantphysiol.org Copyright © 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. Jiang et al. for PDH in other systems (Cabiscol et al., 2000; Holness and Sugden, 2003; Garg et al., 2004; Martin et al., 2005). Moreover, the significant reduction in available pyruvate in the QC (8–10 times less in QC compared to PM) strengthens our contention that alterations in PDH activity could account for a diminution in mitochondrial functioning in the QC. As well, these differences in enzyme activities between mitochondria in the QC and PM support the notion that mitochondria can be primary intracellular targets for the initiation of changes in cell function (Fujie et al., 1993; Smith et al., 2000). depending on its severity, can lead to different developmental pathways (Arimura et al., 2003) including apoptosis, this suggests that the QC may avoid the apoptotic pathway by actively modulating the levels of oxidative stress, as recently suggested for other plant tissues (Dutilleul et al., 2003). The specific mechanisms underlying this tolerance are not completely known but likely involve up-regulation of the antioxidant system at the transcript level (Dutilleul et al., 2003). And because many of these genes are nuclear encoded, this implies cross talk between the mitochondria and other organelles. In this way, redox acclimation can extend far beyond the mitochondria. QC Mitochondria Are Undamaged and Have Normal Structure Oxidative stress and a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (DCm) are often associated with apoptosis (Mancini et al., 1997). However, in the QC, an oxidizing environment does not lead to cell death. Rather, the overall cellular ultrastructure of the QC, including that of the mitochondria, is fairly typical of that found in a variety of unstressed plant cells (Fig. 1, B–D). Cristae are present, but small, as has been previously reported for other maize root cells (Clowes and Juniper, 1964). The intactness of the mitochondria in the QC contrasts with what is observed in like organelles in tissues undergoing senescence in which there is a loss of mitochondrial membrane integrity and organization (Pastori and del Rı́o, 1994). Thus, the observation that mitochondria number and ultrastructure in the QC are normal and unchanged from that in adjacent, dividing cells implies that these redox-sensitive organelles are not undergoing apoptosis/senescence in the QC. This also implies that, in the QC, as has been reported for other plant systems (Millar et al., 2001; Møller, 2001; Dutilleul et al., 2003), there must be some mechanism for ameliorating the effects of oxidative stress on these characteristically reactive oxygen species-sensitive organelles. In this regard, the fact that reduced glutathione and ascorbate are still present in the QC (Jiang et al., 2003) suggests a possible mechanism for protecting against severe oxidative stress and thus may provide insight about why QC mitochondria are apparently undamaged and do not undergo apoptosis, namely, that reduced forms of redox regulators (e.g. glutathione, ascorbate) are never absent or are maintained in a ratio with their oxidized forms so as to preclude apoptosis. Thus, because oxidative stress, Expression of Nuclear-Encoded Mitochondrial Transcripts Is Down-Regulated in the QC The levels of nuclear-encoded transcripts for TCA cycle-related proteins (PDH, SDH, and ME) are reduced in the oxidized microenvironment of the QC (Table II), paralleling the reduction in measurable activity in the QC of the respective proteins (Table I). This suggests that a reduction in levels of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial transcripts could underlie the changed physiology of mitochondria in the QC, including a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (DCm). Giegé et al. (2005) advanced similar ideas to account for the decrease in mitochondrial biogenesis and function in Suc-starved Arabidopsis cell cultures. In this system, nutrient deprivation resulted in a decrease in transcripts for nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins, leading to the suggestion that the availability of nuclear-encoded subunits could be a limiting factor in mitochondrial function. Of particular relevance in that work is the down-regulation of genes for pyruvate metabolism, including PDH and ME, leading Giegé et al. (2005) to suggest that, in Suc-starved cells, ‘‘the abundance of nuclear transcripts could become the limiting factor in the synthesis and assembly of functional mitochondrial complexes’’ (p. 1507). Although we have no evidence that reduced mitochondrial transcript abundance leads to impairment in mitochondrial function in the QC, we, however, can conclude that a reduction in mitochondrial transcript levels does not result in any changes to organelle structure, which is different from what happens to mitochondria in Suc-stressed cells (Giegé et al., 2005). Table IV. Oligonucleotides used for quantitative reverse transcription-PCR Gene Name Iron sulfur subunit of SDH precursor NAD-dependent ME, mitochondrial precursor PDH E1 a-subunit AUX1 GenBank No. Forward Primer Reverse Primer AJ012374 cgctgccccacatgttcgtcgtca ggtggagcagcaggcgcagaggat AW037138 ttctgtctggtgctcgggttatctctg atcctctgctactgcctccctcacaac AF069911 AJ011794 cacttaccgcaccagggatgagat gaggttcgccggagggtggacag atgctgccaacctacggaagagaa ccggcggggcagcagtgagat 1122 Plant Physiol. Vol. 140, 2006 Downloaded from on June 18, 2017 - Published by www.plantphysiol.org Copyright © 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. Mitochondria and Maize Root Quiescent Center Establishment Mitochondrial Transcripts in the QC Are Edited Normally RNA editing of mitochondrial transcripts is required to produce a functional gene product (Lupold et al., 1999; Giegé et al., 2000; Nakajima and Mulligan, 2001). Thus because aberrant, incompletely edited transcripts can disrupt the function of the organelle gene expression system and compromise the metabolic processes of mitochondria, we investigated the status of RNA editing in QC mitochondria. From examining several already well-characterized maize mitochondrial transcripts (Grosskopf and Mulligan, 1996; Williams et al., 1998), we conclude that any differences between mitochondria in the QC and PM are not due to differences in editing, which is the same in both tissues. This again supports our view that mitochondria in the QC are undamaged and are not undergoing apoptosis. Moreover, the similarities between our data for RSP13 of edited versus not edited (66% versus 33%) agree well with that reported earlier by Williams et al. (1998) for maize, and thus again emphasize the point that mitochondria in the QC are not altered in their processing of mRNA. Reduced Mitochondrial Activity May Be Related to the Stem Cell Nature of the QC Because of their apparent ability for unlimited proliferation, self maintenance, and self renewal, a number of workers conclude that QC cells should be viewed as stem cells (Barlow, 1997; Ivanov, 2004; Jiang and Feldman, 2005). Here we raise the possibility that at least some of this stemness may be related to reduced mitochondrial activity. Reports that intracellular redox state can influence the balance between self renewal and differentiation in a variety of stem cell/precursor cell populations (Smith et al., 2000; Noda et al., 2001; Barros et al., 2004) imply a role for mitochondria in determining the state of cell differentiation. Using the dye rhodamine 123, which is reflective of mitochondrial activity, Smith et al. (2000) showed a lesser extent of mitochondrial labeling in hematopoietic stem cells and in hepatic precursor cells. These workers thus suggested that ‘‘redox modulation functions in multiple processes related to self renewal and differentiation’’ (Smith et al., 2000; p. 10037). As well, work showing that mild mitochondrial uncoupling is able to increase both the chronological and replicative life span of cells (Barros et al., 2004) supports the contention that redox affects the state/level of cell differentiation via a mechanism involving mitochondria. It is intriguing to speculate here that the stem cell nature of QC cells could also be related to their reduced mitochondrial activity. CONCLUSION Previously we provided evidence that auxin imposes an oxidative stress on the root tip and we hypothesized that the formation of a QC is an inevitable developmental outcome of this oxidized microenvironment (Jiang et al., 2003; Jiang and Feldman, 2005). Here we elaborate on that scenario and suggest that altered mitochondrial membrane potential and changed TCA cycle biochemistry reflect responses of mitochondria to oxidative stress and result in the establishment of a redox homeostasis that underlies the formation and maintenance of the QC. MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant Growth Conditions and Tissue Collection Maize caryopses (Zea mays var. Merit; Asgrow Seed) were imbibed and germinated in the dark at 25°C for 2 to 3 d. For experiments to measure TCA cycle enzymes and cycle intermediates, QCs, and the adjacent zone of rapidly dividing cells, the PM, were collected separately (as described in Feldman and Torrey, 1976) and assayed as described below. In this cultivar, the QC is separable from the PM as a consequence of a weak, thin-walled junction. Extraction and Assay of Pyruvate and TCA Enzymes The activities of five TCA cycle-associated enzymes were measured: KDH (Nulton-Persson and Szweda, 2001), PDH (Randall, 1982), NAD1 ME (Geer et al., 1980), MDH (Nunes-Nesi et al., 2005), and SDH (Strain et al., 1998). For each assay, 60 to 70 QCs (approximately 0.42 mg) and 20 PMs (approximately 11 mg) were homogenized in 70 or 150 mL, respectively, of the appropriate extraction buffer. The final volume for each assay was 75 to 150 mL. For all assays, more or less equal amounts of total protein were used and the activities expressed on a basis of 100 mg total protein. All assays were replicated at least three times and the results expressed as a mean 6 SD. For analysis limited to two groups (QC and PM), Student’s t test was employed (P , 0.05). Spectrophotometric measurements were made on a Shimadzu UV160U spectrophotometer using Eppendorf Uvette microcuvettes. The total amount of pyruvate was determined as described by Millenaar et al. (1998). Assaying Oxidative Activity (Oxidative Stress) in Living Tissues Assaying oxidative activity in living cells was assessed using a dye that is colorless when chemically reduced (when freshly obtained) but, when oxidized, fluoresces in UV light (340-nm irradiation; 530-nm emission). For this work, we used carboxy-H2DCFDA (C-400) dye (Molecular Probes; catalog no. C–6827) as previously described (Jiang et al., 2003). Assaying Mitochondrial Membrane Potential (Mitochondrial Activity) To ascertain the functional status of mitochondria in the QC, we used two mitochondria-selective dyes, JC-9 (3,3#-dimethyl-b-naphthoxazolium iodide; Invitrogen; catalog no. D22421) and MitoTracker Orange (Invitrogen; catalog no. M7510). Uptake of these dyes occurs in functioning mitochondria and is dependent on the establishment and maintenance of mitochondrial membrane potential (DCm; Duchen et al., 1993; Sureau et al., 1993; Cossarizza et al., 1994; Castedo et al., 1996). Because of the cell wall, entry of these dyes into the plant protoplasts is usually retarded. Thus, to increase dye uptake, QCs were first excised and placed on a glass slide in a drop of solution containing protoplasting enzymes (3% cellulase, 1%–3% pectinase; Onazuka) in 10 mM potassium-phosphate buffer, pH 5.7. Treatments were brief, usually 15 to 30 min. Following this limited enzyme exposure, the QCs were washed several times with plain buffer and then incubated for 2 h in 0.012 mM JC-9 dissolved in 10 mM potassium-phosphate buffer, pH 5.7, or for 1 to 2 h in 0.1 to 0.25 nM Mitotracker Orange dissolved in 10 mM potassium-phosphate buffer, pH 5.7. Following incubation with the dyes, the QCs were washed several times in plain buffer and then observed under UV light using a Leica DM microscope. Plant Physiol. Vol. 140, 2006 1123 Downloaded from on June 18, 2017 - Published by www.plantphysiol.org Copyright © 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. Jiang et al. Electron Microscopy All solutions were made with 0.05 M sodium cacodylate buffer, pH 7.2. Just before fixation, root caps were excised from the root tips so as to permit more rapid entrance of the fixative into the QC. Immediately after decapping, root tips (1 mm) were fixed at room temperature for 6 h in 6% glutaraldehyde, rinsed three times for 15 min in buffer, followed by postfixation and staining with 1% osmium tetroxide for 1 to 2 h. Following three 5-min rinses with buffer and distilled water (three 10-min rinses), the tissues were dehydrated through a graded ethanol series. After dehydration, the tissues were embedded in Spurr’s resin. Approximately 60-nm-thick longitudinal sections were cut using a RMC MT6000 microtome placed on slot grids and stained for 10 min in 2% uranyl acetate followed by a 5-min staining in either Reynold’s lead citrate or Sato’s lead. The stained sections were viewed using a FEI Tecnai 12 120-kV transmission electron microscope. A total of 12 roots tips, representing three separate fixations, were examined ultrastructurally. RNA Editing RNA Isolation an additional control reaction was carried out in which the reverse transcriptase was omitted, thereby allowing for assessment of genomic DNA contamination. The cDNA solutions and the controls were diluted to 40 mL with DNase-free water before PCR. Quantitative PCR was performed as previously described (Jiang et al., 2006). In each experiment, two standard curves, one for the target gene and one for the Kan 1.2, were prepared from root-tip tissue using a cDNA dilution series (1 3 , 0.5 3 , 0.3 3 , 0.25 3 , and 0.15 3 ). All samples were assayed in triplicate. For each standard curve, the linearity (Pearson correlation coefficient) was higher than 0.900. Target cDNAs were normalized to Kan 1.2. Differences in transcript levels between the QC and PM are expressed as a ratio (QC:PM; Table II). The results are presented as the means of two independent PCR experiments. A positive control was run on AUX1 (GenBank accession no. AJ011794), which is up-regulated in the QC (Hochholdinger et al., 2000), and a negative control was run on GAPC4, which is downregulated in the QC, as determined by virtual northern blots (data not shown). Virtual northern blots (SMART kit; CLONTECH) were performed as previously described (Jiang et al., 2006). All gene-specific primers are indicated in Table IV, except for GAPC4 and Kan 1.2, which have both been previously described by Jiang et al. (2006) and McMaugh and Lyon (2003), respectively. For each experiment, pooled tissues (approximately 180–200 PMs or 1,400– 1,500 QCs) were homogenized in liquid nitrogen and total RNA extracted using the RNAwiz kit (Ambion) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Sequence data from this article can be found in the GenBank/EMBL data libraries under accession numbers AF069911, AF079549, AF390542, AJ011794, AJ012374, and AW037138. Dnase I-Treated RNA ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Total RNA (15–17 mg) was digested in a 100-mL reaction volume with 10 units of RNAse-free DNase I (Gibco BRL) for 1 h at 37°C, followed by two extractions: the first with 100 mL of phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1, v/v) and the second with 100 mL of chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24:1, v/v). The RNA was then precipitated by adding 10 mL of 3 M NaOAc plus 275 mL of ethanol (100%), and incubated for 30 min at 280°C followed by centrifuging for 30 min at 10,000g. The resulting pellet was washed with 200 mL of 80% ethanol and resuspended in 20 mL of diethylpyrocarbonatetreated water. RNA integrity was assessed by examining the rRNA band after electrophoresis on a 1% agarose gel. We are grateful for the assistance of the staff of the University of California, Berkeley, Electron Microscopy Facility, with special thanks to Reena Zalpuri. Reverse Transcription-PCR and Sequencing to Determine the Editing Status of mtRNA For detecting the editing status of the mtRNA, 1 mg of total RNA from either PM or QC tissue was reverse transcribed using SuperScript RNase H2 reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen) with a gene-specific 3# antisense oligonucleotide in a 10-mL reaction volume. For RSP13, we used the oligonucleotide designated MMM2 (Williams et al., 1998) and for ATP9 we used the oligonucleotide designated ZmATP9-3# (Grosskopf and Mulligan, 1996) as previously described (Williams et al., 1998). For each sample, a negative control was carried out in which the reverse transcriptase was omitted, allowing for assessment of genomic DNA contamination. Then, the reactions were diluted four times and 1 mL of this product was amplified by PCR using gene-specific primers for RSP13 (MMM1 and MMM2; Williams et al., 1998) and for ATP9 (ZmATP9-3# and ZmATP9-5#; Grosskopf and Mulligan, 1996). Amplification was performed for 25 cycles of 20 s at 94°C, 30 s at 60°C, and 45 s at 72°C. PCR products were isolated from the gel and cloned in the pGEM vector (Promega), which was used to transform Escherichia coli. Following transformation, six colonies from either the QC or PM were randomly selected and the plasmids were isolated and sequenced. Measuring the Levels of Selected Nuclear-Encoded Mitochondrial Transcripts Using Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription-PCR Total RNA was quantified spectrophotometrically. As an internal standard for normalization, we added approximately 150 pg of kanamycin 1.2-kb control RNA (Kan 1.2; Promega) per 30 mg of total RNA in a total volume of 60 mL to give a final Kan 1.2 concentration of 2.5 pg mL21, as described by McMaugh and Lyon (2003). The first strand of cDNA was synthesized from 2 mL of the Kan 1.2-spiked total RNA using an oligo dT(18) primer and SuperScript II RNase H2 reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen). 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