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PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEW SHEET Psychology Behavior Mental Process Behavioral Perspective Humanistic Perspective Psychoanalyst Perspective Cognitive Perspective Biological Perspective Social-Cultural Perspective Behavior Genetics Chromosomes Genes Identical vs. Fraternal Twins Heritability Norms Culture Confirmation Bias Researcher Bias Naturalistic Observation Case Study Correlation Study Survey Method Longitudinal Study vs. Cross Sectional Study Hypothesis Independent Variable Dependent Variable Informed Consent Frequency Distribution Mode Mean Median Range Standard Deviation Normal Distribution Dendrites Axons Synapse Neurotransmitter Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Hormones Endocrine System Medulla Corpus Callosum Cerebral Cortex Broca’s Area Wernicke’s Area CAT Scan MRI Scan PET Scan EEG Sensation Absolute Threshold Difference Threshold Sensory Adaptation Pupil Trichromatic Theory Pitch Loudness Sound Cochlea Chemical Senses Sensation of Touch Kinesthetics Gate-Control Theory Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Psychology (Principles) Visual Cliff Experiment Retinal Disparity Motivation Instinct Drive Reduction Theory Homeostasis Extrinsic Motivation vs. Intrinsic Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Self-Actualization) Basal Metabolic Rate Emotion Stressor Stress General Adaptation Syndrome Teratogens Maturation Jean Piaget (Theory) Cognition Assimilation Accommodation Attachment Harry Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiment Imprinting Nature vs. Nurture Adolescence Primary Sex Characteristics vs. Secondary Sex Characteristics Alzheimer’s Disease Senile Dementia Personality Psychodynamic Perspective Freud’s Map of the Mind (Id, Ego, Superego) Inferiority Complex (Alfred Adler) Collective Unconscious Self-Concept Traits Big Five Personality Factors Stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response Spontaneous Recovery Extinction Discrimination Generalization Operant Conditioning Reinforcement vs. Punishment Positive Reinforcement vs. Negative Reinforcement Observational Learning Steps Involved In Information Processing Proactive Interference vs. Retroactive Interference Repression Consciousness Biological Rhythms (3) Sleep Cycle Sleep Apnea Insomnia Narcolepsy Dependence Psychoactive Drug Withdrawal Depressants Stimulants Hallucinogens Concept Prototype Algorithm Mental Set Functional Fixedness Phoneme Morpheme Intelligence Aptitude Tests Achievement Tests Psychological Disorder Anxiety Disorder Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Phobia Panic Attack Dissociative Disorders Delusions Psychotherapy Biomedical Therapies Depression Fugue PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEW SHEET Psychology -the science of behavior and mental processes Behavior -something that is directly observable Mental Process -the things that we cannot observe directly Behavioral Perspective -psychology should focus exclusively on studying observable behaviors Humanistic Perspective -focuses on how healthy people strive to reach their full potential Psychoanalyst Perspective -focus on understanding unconscious drives and conflicts in explaining human behavior Cognitive Perspective -focuses on understanding how people think, process, store, and retrieve information Biological Perspective -explains human behavior in the context of understanding the chemicals, hormones, and physical structures of the body Social-Cultural Perspective -focus on how thinking or behavior changes in different contexts or situations Behavior Genetics -the study of the effects of genetic and environmental influences on behavior Chromosomes -threadlike structures found in the nucleus of a cell Genes -our physical form, our relative risk of developing certain diseases, our tendency to engage in various behaviors Identical vs. Fraternal Twins -“identical twins” – siblings that develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two -“fraternal twins” – siblings that develop from two separate eggs Heritability -refer to how much genes contribute to a certain trait Norms -understood rules for accepted and expected social behavior Culture -share attitudes, beliefs, norms, and behaviors of a group transmitted over generations Confirmation Bias -when researchers only search for information that supports their preconceptions Researcher Bias -when researchers selectively notice evidence that supports their hypothesis Naturalistic Observation -the researchers observe and record behaviors in naturally occurring situations Case Study -a research technique in which one person is studied in depth Correlation Study -a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each another Survey Method -a research technique designed to discover self-reported attitudes or behaviors through questionnaires Longitudinal Study vs. Cross Sectional Study -Longitudinal Study – study the same group of people over a long period -Cross Sectional Study – compare individuals from different age groups at one time Hypothesis -a researchers testable prediction about the outcome of research Independent Variable -the variable the experimenter manipulates in order to examine its effect on the dependent variable Dependent Variable -the variable the experimenter measures in order to see if it was affected by the change in the independent variable Informed Consent -participants must know in advance about the general nature of the research when their involvement is complete Frequency Distribution -a list of scores ordered from highest to lowest Mode -the score that occurs most frequently in a distribution Mean -the mathematical average of a distribution Median -the middle score of a ranked distribution Range -the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution Standard Deviation -tells how much scores vary around the mean score of a distribution Normal Distribution -a frequency distribution shaped like a bell Dendrites -receive neurotransmitters from another neuron Axons -store neurotransmitters and release them into synapses Synapse -junction between a sending neuron and a receiving neuron Neurotransmitter -a chemical that is released from an axon terminal into a synapse Central Nervous System -consists of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System -division of the nervous system Hormones -chemical messengers that circulate throughout the body via the bloodstream Endocrine System -a system that transports important hormones produced by several glands Medulla -part of the brain that controls the most basic life support functions Corpus Callosum -brain structure that connects the right and left hemispheres Cerebral Cortex -parts of . . . frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes Broca’s Area -language region in the left hemisphere Wernicke’s Area -language region in the left hemisphere CAT Scan -brain scan that is a series of x-rays combined into computerized pictures of the brain MRI Scan -brain scan that involves magnetic fields and radio waves that provide information about different structures in the brain PET Scan -brain scan that is a visual display of activity in the brain, measuring glucose used by brain structures EEG -brain scan that is an amplified recording of brain waves Sensation -the process by which the brain receives information from the senses Absolute Threshold -the minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus Difference Threshold -determines whether you can hear if the volume has been increases on a stereo Sensory Adaptation -the filtering out of non-changing stimuli in the environment Pupil -adjusts to let in more or less light Trichromatic Theory -describes how we perceive millions of color combinations Pitch -the length (frequency) of a sound wave determines a sound’s highness or lowness Loudness -determined by the height, or amplitude of a sound was Sound -produced by vibrations traveling through the air, sensed by structures in the ear Cochlea -fluid-filled tube in which sound waves trigger nerve impulses Chemical Senses -smell and taste Sensation of Touch -includes the four basic sensations of pain, pressure, warmth, and cold Kinesthetics -the sensory system that senses the position and movement of individual body parts Gate-Control Theory -rubbing the area of skin that hurts might stop pain sensations temporarily Gestalt Psychology -emphasize the whole is more than the sum of the parts Gestalt Psychology (Principles) -similarity, proximity, closure, and continuity Visual Cliff Experiment -used to test depth perception in infants Retinal Disparity -refers to the somewhat different images our two eyes receive of the same object Motivation -a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal Instinct -an inherited, unlearned, preprogrammed complex behavior occurring throughout a species Drive Reduction Theory -a psychological drive comes from a physiological need Homeostasis -the body’s tendency to maintain a balanced internal state Extrinsic Motivation vs. Intrinsic Motivation -extrinsic motivation – a desire to perform a behavior in order to obtain promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment -a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Self-Actualization) -the highest need in his hierarchy is the need to realize our unique potential as a person Basal Metabolic Rate -the body’s resting rate at which it burns calories for energy Emotion -physiological arousal, expression, and conscience experience combine to form Stressor -an event you perceive as threatening or challenging Stress -the process by which we perceive and respond to events we appraise as threatening or challenging General Adaptation Syndrome -alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion Teratogens -chemicals that prevent a fetus from developing normally Maturation -biological growth processes that enable changes in behavior Jean Piaget (Theory) -cognitive development Cognition -all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering Assimilation -describes the process of interpreting new experiences in terms of your existing schemas Accommodation -describes the proves of adapting current schemas to incorporate new information Attachment -emotional tie children experience with parents Harry Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiment -demonstrated the body contact is the most important factor in attachment Imprinting -attaching to the first object an animal sees after birth Nature vs. Nurture -“nature” – heredity -“nurture” - environment Adolescence -the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence Primary Sex Characteristics vs. Secondary Sex Characteristics -primary sex characteristics – the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible -secondary sex characteristics – nonreproductive sexual characteristics Alzheimer’s Disease -a progressive and irreversible brain disorder, characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning Senile Dementia -mental disintegration that accompanies alcoholism, tumor, stroke, aging, or anything that results in a substantial loss of brain cells Personality -the psychological term for an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting Psychodynamic Perspective -the view of personality that explains personality as being driven by unconscious thought processes Freud’s Map of the Mind (Id, Ego, Superego) -Id – the part of the personality that strives for immediate gratification of basic drives -Ego – the part of the personality that mediates demands form the id and superego -Superego – the part of the personality that represents our sense of right and wrong and our ideal standards Inferiority Complex (Alfred Adler) -ability to overcome feelings of inferiority Collective Unconscious -a reservoir of memories (Carl Jung) Self-Concept -all of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?” Traits -characteristic patterns of behavior and motivation Big Five Personality Factors -emotional stability, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness Stimulus -anything in the environment that one can respond Unconditioned Stimulus -the stimulus that triggers a response reflexively and automatically Unconditioned Response -an automatic response to a stimulus that occur without learning Conditioned Stimulus -the stimulus that gains the power to cause a response after learning Conditioned Response -the learned response Spontaneous Recovery -refers to the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response Extinction -when a conditioned response no longer occurs in the presence of the conditioned stimulus Discrimination -the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus Generalization -occurs when an organism produces the same response to similar stimuli Operant Conditioning -type of learning in which the consequences of a behavior determine the frequency with which that behavior occurs Reinforcement vs. Punishment -reinforcement is to strengthen as punishment is to weaken Positive Reinforcement vs. Negative Reinforcement -positive reinforcement involves adding a stimulus, and negative reinforcement involves taking a stimulus away Observational Learning -involves watching others and modeling Steps Involved In Information Processing -encoding, storage, and retrieval Proactive Interference vs. Retroactive Interference -proactive interference occurs when previous learned information interferes with our recall of information learned more recently -retroactive interference occurs when information we learned recently prevents us from remembering information we learned previously Repression -motivated forgetting moves memories into the unconscious mind (S. Freud) Consciousness -awareness of yourself and your environment Biological Rhythms (3) -circadian, ultradian, infradian Sleep Cycle -Stage 1, Stage 2, Stage 3, Stage 4, REM Sleep Apnea -results in not being able to breathe at times during sleep Insomnia -a sleep disorder characterized by difficulty in falling or staying asleep Narcolepsy -sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks Dependence -state of physiological and psychological need to take more of a drug after continued use Psychoactive Drug -a drug that affects our mood, behavior, and perception Withdrawal -the discomfort and distress that occurs when a person dependent on a drug discontinues use Depressants -reduce the neural activity and slow body functions Stimulants -excite neural activity and speed up body functions Hallucinogens -distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of environmental stimuli Concept -a mental group based on shared similarities Prototype -typical best example of a concept Algorithm -methodical step-by-step procedure for solving problems Mental Set -a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way Functional Fixedness -the inability to think of different uses for objects Phoneme -the smallest distinctive sound unit in a spoken language Morpheme -the smallest unit that carries meaning in language Intelligence -the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new solutions Aptitude Tests -attempt to predict future performance Achievement Tests -designed to assess learned knowledge and skills Psychological Disorder -harmful behaviors that are maladaptive, unjustifiable, disturbing, and atypical Anxiety Disorder -anxiety disorder marked by persistent, unexplained feelings of apprehension and tension Obsessive Compulsive Disorder -a disorder that includes the symptoms of unwanted, repetitive thoughts or actions Phobia -characterized by disruptive, irrational fears of objects or situations Panic Attack -a sudden wave of terror and fear that something bad is going to happen Dissociative Disorders -category of disorders which involves a separated sense of self – separate from memories, thoughts, and feelings Delusions -false beliefs experienced by people with schizophrenia Psychotherapy -nonmedical therapy Biomedical Therapies -include prescribed drugs, electroconvulsive therapy, and psychosurgery Depression -characterized by feelings of personal worthlessness Fugue -a disorder which is an extended form of amnesia characterized by loss of identity and travel to a new location