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Transcript
Cell theory 1. 2. 3. All living things are composed of one or more cells Cells are the smallest units of living organisms New cells come only from pre-existing cells by cell division 1 Microscopy Magnification Ratio between the size of an image produced by a microscope and its actual size Resolution Ability to observe two adjacent objects as distinct from one another Contrast Ability to differentiate an object from other objects and the background, often by color and brightness. Can be enhanced using dyes 2 Microscopy Light microscope Uses light for illumination Resolution 0.2 µm Electron microscope Uses an electron beam Resolution 2 nm 3 4 5 Electron microscopes Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Thin slices stained with heavy metals Some electrons are scattered while others pass through to form an image Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Sample coated with heavy metal Beam scans surface to make 3D image 6 7 Prokaryotic cells Simple cell structure Lack a membrane-enclosed nucleus 2 categories- bacteria and archaea Both small Bacteria- abundant, most not harmful Archaea- less common, often found in extreme environments 8 Bacteria vs. Archae? Escherichia coli Bacteria Halobacteria Archae 9 Phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between the archaea and other forms of life. Eukaryotes are colored red, archaea green and bacteria blue. Adapted from Ciccarelli FD, Doerks T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P (2006). "Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life". Science 311 (5765): 1283–7. doi:10.1126/science.1123061. PMID 16513982 10 Typical bacterial cell Plasma membrane- barrier Cytoplasm- contained inside plasma membrane Nucleoid- region where genetic material found Ribosomes- involved in protein synthesis 11 Many structures are located outside the plasma membrane Cell wall- support and protection Glycocalyx- “sugar coat” traps water, protection, attachment Appendages- pilli (attachment), flagella (locomotion) 12 13 Eukaryotic cells DNA housed inside nucleus Eukaryotic cells exhibit compartmentalization Organelle- subcellular structure or membrane-bounded compartment with its own unique structure and function Shape, size, and organization of cells vary considerably among different species and even among different cell types of the same species 14 15 16 17 The Proteome Determines the Characteristics of a Cell How does a single organism produce different types of cells? Identical DNA in different cells but different proteomes The proteome of a cell determines its structure and function Gene regulation, amount of protein, amino acid sequence of a particular protein and protein modification can influence a cell’s proteome Proteomes in healthy cells are different from the proteomes of cancerous cells Cytosol Region of a eukaryotic cell that is outside the cell organelles but inside the plasma membrane Cytoplasm includes everything inside the plasma membrane Cytosol, the endomembrane system and the semiautonomous organelles 19 20 Metabolism Cytosol is central coordinating region for many metabolic activities of eukaryotic cells Catabolism- breakdown of a molecule into smaller components Anabolism- synthesis of cellular molecules and macromolecules 21 Translation (more later) Process of polypeptide synthesis Information within a gene is ultimately translated into the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide Ribosome- site of synthesis Transfer RNA (tRNA)- brings amino acids Messenger RNA (mRNA)- information to make a polypeptide 22 23 Cytoskeleton Network of three different types of protein filaments Microtubules Dynamic and unstable Centrosome or microtubule-organizing center in animals Intermediate filaments Tend to be more stable than microtubules and actin filaments, which readily polymerize and depolymerize Actin filaments (microfilaments) Provide structure and mobility for cell 24 25 Motor Proteins Category of cellular proteins that use ATP as a source of energy to promote movement Three domains called the head, hinge, and tail Walking analogy Ground is a cytoskeletal filament, your leg is the head of the motor protein, and your hip is the hinge 26 Motor Proteins Three different kinds of movements Motor protein moves the cargo from one location to another Motor protein can remain in place and cause the filament to move Motor protein attempting to walk (both the motor protein and filament restricted in their movement) exerts a force that causes the filament to bend 27 28 Flagella and cilia Flagella usually longer than cilia and present singly or in pairs Cilia are often shorter than flagella and tend to cover all or part of the surface of a cell Share the same internal structure Movement involves the propagation of a bend, which begins at the base of the structure and proceeds toward the tip 29 30 31 Sheetz and Spudich Show That Myosin Walks Along Actin Filaments Early researchers proposed the sliding-filament model based on work with living cells in vivo 1983, Michael Sheetz and James Spudich devised an approach to study myosin in vitro Nitella cells were used as a source of actin filaments Myosin was purified and attached to a fluorescently labeled bead Confirmed that myosin is a motor protein that uses ATP to walk along actin filaments All that is needed for movement are actin, myosin, and ATP Endomembrane system Network of membranes enclosing the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles Also includes plasma membrane May be directly connected to each other or pass materials via vesicles 34 35 Nuclear envelope Double-membrane structure enclosing nucleus Outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane Nuclear pores provide passageways Materials within the nucleus are not part of the endomembrane system 36 37 Nucleus Chromosomes Composed of DNA and protein (Chromatin) Primary function involves the protection, organization, and expression of the genetic material Ribosome assembly occurs in the nucleolus 38 Endoplasmic reticulum Network of membranes that form flattened, fluidfilled tubules or cisternae ER membrane encloses a single compartment called the ER lumen Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) Studded with ribosomes Involved in protein synthesis and sorting Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER) Lacks ribosomes Detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism, calcium balance, synthesis and modification of lipids 39 40 Golgi apparatus Also called the Golgi body, Golgi complex, or simply Golgi Stack of flattened, membrane-bounded compartments, which are not continuous with the ER Vesicles transport materials between stacks Three overlapping functions Secretion, processing, and protein sorting 41 42 Lysosomes Contain acid hydrolases that perform hydrolysis Many different types of acid hydrolases to break down proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids Autophagy Recycling of worn-out organelles through endocytosis 43 44 Vacuoles Functions of vacuoles are extremely varied, and they differ among cell types and even environmental conditions Central vacuoles in plants for storage and support Contractile vacuoles in protists for expelling excess water Phagocytic vacuoles in protists and white blood cells for degradation 45 46 Plasma membrane Boundary between the cell and the extracellular environment Membrane transport in and out of cell Selectively permeable Cell signaling using receptors Cell adhesion 47 48 Semiautonomous organelles Can grow and divide to reproduce themselves they are not completely autonomous they depend on other parts of the cell for their internal components Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and peroxisomes 49 50 Mitochondria Outer and inner membrane Intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix Primary role is to make ATP Also involved in the synthesis, modification, and breakdown of several types of cellular molecules Can also generate heat in brown fat cells 51 52 Chloroplasts Photosynthesis capture light energy and use some of that energy to synthesize organic molecules such as glucose Found in nearly all species of plants and algae Outer and inner membrane with an intermembrane space Third membrane, the thylakoid membrane, forms flattened tubules that stack to form a granum (plural, grana) 53 54 Peroxisomes Relatively small organelles found in all eukaryotic cells General function to catalyze certain chemical reactions: break down molecules by removing hydrogen or adding oxygen Reaction by-product is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) Catalase breaks down H2O2 without forming dangerous free radicals 55 KU Game Day!! M 3:30; F 3:30 Wed 4 Wed 7:30 56