Download Cells: The Building Blocks of Life

Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Knowledge Probe
Primary Knowledge
Research Activity
Participant Guide
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Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
University of New Mexico
BioMEMS Topic
Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Learning Module
This booklet contains three (3) units:
Knowledge Probe (pre-quiz)
Primary Knowledge
Cells Research Activity
Target audiences: High School, Community College, University
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced
Technological Education (ATE) Program through Grants #DUE 0902411.
Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material
are those of the authors and creators, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
National Science Foundation.
Copyright © by the Southwest Center for Microsystems Education
and
The Regents of the University of New Mexico
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
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Phone: 505-272-7150
Website: www.scme-nm.org
Cells – The Building Blocks of Life
Knowledge Probe (Pre-Quiz)
Participant Guide
Introduction
The purpose of this pre-quiz is to determine your current understanding of the cell as the basic unit
of life, cell types and organization of cells, and the kinds of organelles found in eukaryotic cells.
You should take this quiz prior to starting the learning module. This knowledge leads to an
understanding of the importance of cells in bioMEMS applications.
You will not be graded on this quiz; therefore, answer to the best of your current knowledge. There
are ten (10) questions.
1.
If electron micrographs consistently show mitochondria grouped around a particular structure in a
particular cell type, what might one infer?
a. cell is dead or dying
b. structure requires a considerable supply of energy
c. cell contains DNA
d. structure in involved in secretion
e. cell is carrying out protein synthesis
2.
Which of the following would be present in prokaryotic cells?
a. endoplasmic reticulum
b. nuclear envelope
c. ribosomes
d. mitochondria
e. lysosomes
3.
The cytoskeleton includes which of the following?
a. microtubules only
b. actin microfilaments only
c. endoplasmic reticulum only
d. microtubules and actin microfilaments
e. tight junctions and microtubules
4.
Why are individual cells considered life's fundamental units?
a. Are abundant in our world
b. Exhibit all of the basic properties of life
c. Exhibit some of the basic properties of life
d. Are present in the fossil record
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Cells Knowledge Probe
5.
If all the lysosomes within a cell suddenly ruptured, what would be the most likely result?
a. The macromolecules in the cell cytosol would begin to degrade.
b. The number of proteins in the cytosol would begin to increase.
c. The DNA within the mitochondria would begin to degrade.
d. The mitochondria and chloroplasts would begin to divide.
e. There would be no change in the normal function of the cell.
6.
What type of cell always lacks a cell wall?
a. Bacterial cell
b. Plant cell
c. Animal cell
d. Fungal cell
e. Prokaryotic cell
7.
Chromosomes are a series of entangled threads. What are chromosomes composed of?
a. Microtubules
b. DNA and protein
c. Fibrous proteins
d. Cytoskeleton
e. Membranes
8.
A cell is composed of compounds that include proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. A
cell is capable of reproduction, but when the compounds that make up a cell are isolated, none of
them can reproduce. Based on this, what is cell reproduction an example of?
a. Growth
b. A molecule
c. Adaptation
d. An emergent property
e. Metabolism
9.
Which of the following applications would NOT benefit from the ability to sort and concentrate
bacterial cells on a micro-fluidic biochip?
a. food safety
b. environmental risk management
c. DNA analysis
d. health diagnostics
10.
Cell survival is NOT dependent on which of the following? A cell’s ability to…
a. Prevent of DNA mutations.
b. Obtain and process energy.
c. Convert genetic information into proteins.
d. Keep certain biochemical reactions separate from one another.
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Cells Knowledge Probe
Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Primary Knowledge
Participant Guide
Description and Estimated Time to Complete
This unit provides information on cells, the building blocks of life and how bioMEMS are being
used in identify, analyze and cultivate cells. This information is necessary to better understand how
bioMEMS use cells to create new diagnostic and therapeutic devices.
Estimated Time to Complete
Allow approximately 20 minutes
Introduction
What is a cell?
Why should a person who is interested in bioMEMS learn about a cell?
Primarily because the emerging field of bioMEMS is rapidly growing. One area of major interest is
the development of miniature and portable instrumentation for cell-based microassays and sensor
applications.
The image on the right is from the Phenotype MicroArray™
(PM), a new tool which offers a panoramic view of cellular
events or properties (phenotypes). Just like a battery of tests
on a person’s blood can scan the health of vital organs, the
PM can scan the physiology of cells, yielding data on
hundreds of traits at once. Typical cell-based assays measure
only one trait at a time (for example, cell death or DNA
synthesis), but the PM can measure up to 2,000 traits--or
phenotypes--under hundreds of growth conditions.1 The PM
is a valuable tool that lead to the development of safer and
more effective drugs by allowing us to better understand how
a gene or drug affects living cells.11
The Phenotype MicroArray™ (PM)
Environmental Health Perspectives Volume 114, Number 3, March 2006
Some challenges facing investigators are
 how to incorporate living cells into sensors and diagnostic devices,
 how to create environmental conditions conducive to cell organization into tissue-like structures,
and
 how to sort and concentrate bacterial cells on a micro-fluidic biochip.
Applications in both diagnostic and therapeutic areas such as health diagnostics, environmental risk
management, and food safety, are just a few of the areas impacted. All areas rely on a basic
knowledge of a cell.
To a biologist, a cell is the smallest unit exhibiting the property of life. Cells acquire and use energy;
they acquire and organize materials; they grow and reproduce.
This unit will introduce the different types of cells, aspects of their growth, and the types of
organelles found within cells.
Objectives



Define and interpret the Cell Theory.
Describe similarities and differences of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Identify and describe the functions of cellular structures (cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus,
cytoplasm, chloroplast, mitochondria) within a cell.
Hooke's Microscope
Cells are small, approximately 10x smaller than the
visual limits of the human eye. Thus, the discovery of
cells was dependent on the development of the
microscope, a tool that aided the human eye. In 1662,
Robert Hooke built a primitive microscope and used it
to observe and describe individual cells of cork. The
illustration above shows the microscope used by
Robert Hooke and a drawing of the cork showing
individual cells or compartments.
Robert Hooke's microscope and drawing of a thin
layer of cork
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Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Leeuwenhoek's Observations
In 1675, Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a
microscope to examine droplets of water. He
described a multitude of "animalcules", thus
becoming the first person to observe living,
single-celled microorganisms.3
Leeuwenhoek's work generated a great deal of
excitement; however, it was another 100 years
before scientists would describe cells in greater
detail.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek and his drawings of microorganisms
The Cell Theory
Plant Cell
[Image courtesy of Mariana Ruiz Villarreal]
In the 1830's, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed a set of hypotheses that came to
be called the cell theory. The cell theory states
(1) all organisms are composed of one or more cells
(2) the cell is the structural unit of life
(3) cells can arise only by division from a preexisting cell
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Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Bacteria, Animal cell, Plant cell
[Bacteria and Plant cell graphics courtesy of Mariana Ruiz Villarreal]
Cells vary in the types and complexity of structures found both internally and externally. However,
they can be categorized into two broad types: Prokaryote and Eukaryote. The structurally simpler
prokaryotic cells include bacteria (Fig 1), and the more complex eukaryotic cells include protists,
fungi, animals (Fig 2) and plants (Fig 3).
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Common features of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells
This figure compares eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. It points out common features found in both
cell types. Despite these common features, many characteristics distinguish these two types of
cells. The table lists some of the differentiating features between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
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Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Prokaryotic Cell
Presence of a nucleus
Complex membrane-bound cytoplasmic
organelles
Complex cytoskeletal system
Cellulose-containing cell walls (plants)
Complex chromosomes composed of
DNA and associated proteins
Size
Eukaryotic
Cell
Present
Present
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent, contain cell walls made of
different materials
Absent, usually a single circular
DNA molecule
Very small (0.1-10 mm)
Present
Present in
plants
Present
Small (10-100
mm)
Table 1: Distinguishing Characteristics of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
The Eukaryotic Cell
Compartmentalization is the key to eukaryotic cell function. Eukaryotic cells are larger and more
structurally complex than prokaryotic cells. This complexity is largely due to the membrane-bound
organelle that compartmentalizes cellular functions.
The cell nucleus is the command center of the cell. Surrounded by a porous, double membrane
called the nuclear envelope, the nucleus contains the cell's hereditary material (DNA and associated
proteins) organized into chromosome.
Eukaryotic cells contain an extensive endomembrane system consisting of the endoplasmic
reticulum (both smooth and rough forms), the Golgi apparatus, and lysosome. These organelles
form an interconnected set of membrane systems that function in compartmentalizing, transporting,
and modifying proteins. The lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down proteins,
carbohydrates, and lipids. Lysosomes process cellular debris as well as food particles.
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Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Organelles
Plant Cell showing organelles, Cytoplasm, Plasma Membrane and Cell Wall
[Image courtesy of Mariana Ruiz Villarreal]
Two organelles, mitochondria and chloroplasts, function specifically to supply energy to cells.
Nearly all eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria. Chloroplasts are found only in photosynthetic
cells such as plants and algae (see graphic).
All of the organelles are found within the cytoplasm of the cell. For animal cells, the boundary
of the cell is defined by the plasma membrane. For plant cells, the boundary is defined by the
plasma membrane plus a cell wall composed of cellulose (see graphic). The structure of the
animal cell is in part maintained by an extensive cytoskeletal system composed of actin
microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments.
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Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Growing Cells and MEMS Arrays
Whole cells can be removed from a plant or animal and cultured in a laboratory. In the lab they
grow and reproduce for extended periods of time given optimal environmental conditions.
Cells grown in vitro have become essential tools for the cell and molecular biologist.
Applications for animal cell cultures include the following:10
 Investigate the physiology or biochemistry of cells (e.g. cell metabolism).
 Test the effect of various chemical compounds or drugs on specific cell types (normal or
cancerous cells, for example).
 Assist in the generation of artificial tissues (e.g. artificial skin or organ tissue).
Generating artificial tissues is an emerging area of biotechnology known as “tissue
engineering”.
 Synthesize valuable biologicals from large scale cell cultures. Biologicals encompass a
broad range of cell products (e.g. specific proteins or viruses, therapeutic proteins)
MEMS are being developed and tested that challenge the current tools used for cell cultivation.
BioPOETS at the University of California, Berkeley has developed a MEMS cell culture array
(below left). The array used microfluidics to create an optimal micro-environment for cell
cultivation. The right images are cells that have been cultivated in this array.
MEMS Cell Culture Array (left). This array creates a microenvironment for growing cells in
vitro and in parallel, allowing for the analysis of multiple cell growth conditions. The inset left
shows the microenvironment of each array component. The cells on the right were grown in
the cell culture array developed at the BioPOETS Lab, UC-Berkeley.
[Developed by and courtesy of BioPOETS Lab, UC-Berkeley]
To read more about this array, read “Microfluidic Cell Culture Array”, BioPoets, UC-Berkely.
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Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Summary
A cell is the basic unit of life. Cells are highly complex and organized, possess hereditary
information and the means to use it, reproduce, acquire and utilize energy, carry out a variety of
chemical reactions, engage in mechanical activities, respond to stimuli, and self-regulate.
Cells are divided into two main categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells share similarities, but eukaryotic cells are more complex structurally. The
organelles found in the larger eukaryotic cell compartmentalize cellular functions. Both types of
cells can be grown in the laboratory.
MEMS applications will aid in the cultivation of cells for the purpose of creating new
diagnostic and therapeutic bioMEMS.
Food for Thought / Answers
1. What are the major tenets of the cell theory?
2. How are prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells similar?
3. How are prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells different?
4. What is the primary tool of the cell biologist studying cells in the laboratory?
5. How are MEMS being used in cell cultivation?
Glossary of Key Terms
Actin microfilament - Part of the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells, composed of fibrous actin,
functioning in cellular structure and locomotion.
Cell membrane - A semipermeable membrane that encloses the cytoplasm of a cell.
Cell wall - The rigid outermost cell layer found in plants and certain algae, bacteria, and fungi,
but characteristically absent from animal cells.
Cell Nucleus - The largest of the membrane-bounded organelles found in eukaryotic cells. The
nucleus contains the genetic information of the cell (DNA).
Chromosome - A linear strand of DNA and associated proteins found in the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells that contains genes and functions in the transmission of hereditary information.
Cytoskeleton -The internal framework of a cell composed mainly of actin microfilaments and
microtubules.
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Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Cytoplasm - A complex, semifluid, translucent substance found outside the nucleus of a cell. It
is composed of proteins, fats, and other molecules suspended in water.
Chloroplast - A subcellular organelle contain chlorophyll found in algal and green plant cells.
Eukaryote - A single-celled or multicellular organism whose cells contain a distinct membranebound nucleus.
Lysosome - A membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of most cells containing
hydrolytic enzymes that function in intracellular digestion.
Microtubule: A structure found in eukaryotic cells that is composed of protein, provides
structural support, and assists in cellular locomotion and transport.
Mitochondria - A subcellular organelle found in eukaryotic cells that use oxygen. They are
responsible for energy generation by the process of oxidative phosphorylation.
Organelles – Organelles are subcellular structures that provide internal compartmentalization
and other functions. An organelle is to a cell as an organ is to the body.
Prokaryote - An organism of the kingdom monera (or Prokaryotae), comprising the bacteria and
cyanobacteria, characterized by the absence of a distinct, membrane-bound nucleus or
membrane-bound organelles, and by DNA that is not organized into chromosomes.
References
1
“Cell Scenario: A New Look at Microarrays”. Environmental Health Perspectives Volume
114, Number 3, March 2006. http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/1143/innovations.html
2
“Fundamentals of BioMEMs and Medical Microdevices”. Steven S. Saliterman. Wiley
Interscience. 2006.
3
Life: The Science of Biology, 8th edition, Sadava • Heller • Orians • Purves • Hillis. W.H.
Freeman. 2007.
4
Bioinquiry, 3rd edition, Pruitt and Underwood. Wiley. 2006.
5
Cell and Molecular Biology, 5th edition, Gerald Karp. Wiley. 2008.
6
"BioMEMS applied to the development of cell-based bioassay systems", Brenan, Colin J.;
Domansky, Karel; Kurzawski, Petra; Griffith, Linda G.
7
“Micro- and Nanotechnology for Biomedical and Environmental Applications”. Proc. SPIE
Vol. 3912, p. 76-87. 2000.
8
Microfluidics, BioMEMS, and Medical Microsystems II. Edited by Woias, Peter;
Papautsky, Ian. Proceedings of the SPIE, Volume 5345, pp. 17-25. 2003.
9
"Advances in on-chip photodetection for applications in miniaturized genetic analysis
systems", Namasivayam, Vijay; Lin, Rongsheng; Johnson, Brian; Brahmasandra,
Sundaresh; Razzacki, Zafar; Burke, David T.; Burns, Mark A. Journal of Micromechanics
and Microengineering, Volume 14, Issue 1, pp. 81-90. 2004.
10
“Cell Culture”. Arshad Chaudry. The Science Creative Quarterly. Issue 3. August 2004.
11
Phenotype MicroArray ™ can test thousands of cell properties simultaneously. Tim
Mullane. Biology.com. EurekAlert! June 25, 2001.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-06/BI-PMct-0406101.php
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Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Related SCME Learning Modules
 BioMEMS Applications
 DNA Overview
 DNA to Protein Overview
 Biomolecular Applications in BioMEMS
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced
Technological Education (ATE) Program.
This Learning Module was developed in conjunction with Bio-Link, a National Science
Foundation Advanced Technological Education (ATE) Center for Biotechnology @ www.biolink.org.
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Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Cells – The Building Blocks of Life
Research Activity
Participant Guide
Description and Estimated Time to Complete
This activity provides a research opportunity that will enable you to tie cell structure, function, and
growth to bioMEMS devices. You will attain a greater understanding of cells and cellular
organelles as presented in the related unit "Cells-The Building Blocks of Life".
Estimated Time to Complete
Allow several days to complete your primary research and prepare to present your findings in class.
Introduction
Cells are highly complex and
organized, and there is consistency
within levels of complexity in
different cell types. Knowledge of
the organization and function of
subcellular organelles provides an
understanding of the organization and
complexity of the cell. For example,
in eukaryotic cells (right), the nucleus
and ribosomes are organelles that
process information, while
mitochondria and chloroplasts are
organelles that process energy.
The following activity allows you to investigate a specific question about cell structure or function
and how your findings relate to the field of bioMEMS.
Activity Objectives and Outcomes
Activity Objectives
 State the meaning of cellular organelles structures and functions.
 Translate the knowledge into a new context of bioMEMS devices.
 Describe the experimental methodology needed to answer the question they posed.
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Cells Research Activity
Activity Outcomes
Upon completion of this activity, you will have gained an understanding of the importance of cells
in the field of bioMEMS. You will have researched a unique aspect of cell structure and function,
and extended that knowledge into current or emerging bioMEMS devices that utilize cells.
Documentation
The documentation for this activity will be a
 1 – 2 page synopsis of your research (Be sure to include all resources and references)
 PowerPoint presentation summarizing your findings
 Answers to the Post-Activity Questions
Research Activity: Cells
1. Consider a question about cell structure or function that you would be interested in answering.
2. Write your question below:
3. Research your question.
4. Write a 1-2 page synopsis of your findings.
a. Include the rationale for your choice of an experimental system.
b.
Would the data required to answer the question be easier to collect by working on an
entire plant or animal, or on a population of cultured cells?
c. What might be the advantages or disadvantages of working on a whole organism versus
a cell culture?
d. How can, or how does your question and your findings relate to bioMEMS?
5. Use your synopsis to create a PowerPoint presentation that informs and instructs others about
the question and the experimental design strategy you chose to answer the question. Your
presentation should also summarize a possible or existing relationship between your findings
and bioMEMS.
6. Answer the Post-Activity Questions.
7. You may be asked to present your findings to other participants.
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Cells Research Activity
Post-Activity Questions
1. How do cells communicate with their environment, including other cells? What happens if the
communication is disrupted?
2. Unlike bacterial cells, the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell is bounded by a double-layered
membrane with complex pores. How do you think this might affect traffic between the DNA
and cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell compared with a prokaryotic cell?
3. What might the surface area to volume ratio have to do with cell size and complexity?
Summary
Looking at the emerging field of bioMEMS, one area of major interest is the development of
miniature and portable instrumentation for cell-based microassays and sensor applications. Some
challenges facing investigators are
 how to incorporate living cells into sensors and diagnostic devices,
 how to create environmental conditions conducive to cell organization into tissue-like
structures, and
 how to sort and concentrate bacterial cells on a micro-fluidic biochip.
Applications in both diagnostic and therapeutic areas (health diagnostics, environmental risk
management, and food safety) are just a few of the areas impacted, and all rely on a basic
knowledge of a cell.
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological
Education (ATE) Program.
This Learning Module was developed in conjunction with Bio-Link, a National Science Foundation
Advanced Technological Education (ATE) Center for Biotechnology @ www.bio-link.org.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
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Cells Research Activity
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
Learning Modules available for download @ scme-nm.org
MEMS Introductory Topics
MEMS Fabrication
MEMS History
MEMS: Making Micro Machines DVD and LM
(Kit)
Units of Weights and Measures
A Comparison of Scale: Macro, Micro, and Nano
Introduction to Transducers
Introduction to Sensors
Introduction to Actuators
Problem Solving – A Systematic Approach
Wheatstone Bridge (Pressure Sensor Model Kit)
Crystallography for Microsystems (Crystallography
Kit)
Deposition Overview Microsystems
Photolithography Overview for Microsystems
Etch Overview for Microsystems (Rainbow Wafer
and Anisotropic Etch Kits)
MEMS Micromachining Overview
LIGA Micromachining Simulation Activities (LIGA
Simulation Kit)
Manufacturing Technology Training Center Pressure
Sensor Process (Three Activity Kits)
MEMS Innovators Activity (Activity Kit)
A Systematic Approach to Problem Solving
Introduction to Statistical Process Control
MEMS Applications
MEMS Applications Overview
Microcantilevers (Dynamic Cantilever Kit)
Micropumps Overview
BioMEMS
BioMEMS Overview
BioMEMS Applications Overview
DNA Overview
DNA to Protein Overview
Cells – The Building Blocks of Life
Biomolecular Applications for bioMEMS
BioMEMS Therapeutics Overview
BioMEMS Diagnostics Overview
Clinical Laboratory Techniques and MEMS
MEMS for Environmental and Bioterrorism
Applications
Regulations of bioMEMS
DNA Microarrays (GeneChip® Model Kit available)
Revision: January 2014
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology: The World Beyond Micro
(Supports the film of the same name by Silicon
Run Productions)
Safety
Hazardous Materials
Material Safety Data Sheets
Interpreting Chemical Labels / NFPA
Chemical Lab Safety
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Check our website regularly for the most recent
versions of our Learning Modules.
For more information about SCME
and its Learning Modules and kits,
visit our website
scme-nm.org or contact
Dr. Matthias Pleil at
[email protected]
www.scme-nm.org