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CHAPTER 4: CELLULAR METABOLISM (M.C. FLATH, Ph.D.) OBJECTIVES: 1. Name the two major divisions of metabolism, and compare and contrast them in terms of a general descriptive sentence, additional descriptive terms, how energy is involved, whether bonds or formed or broken, and how water is involved. Also write a chemical reaction for each and give an example important in human metabolism. Anabolism SYNTHESIS REACTIONS Catabolism DEGRADATION RXN'S GENERAL DESCRIPTION Synthesis involves the building of a large molecule (polymer) from smaller building blocks (monomer). Degradation involves the breakdown of polymer into individual monomers. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS building constructive anabolic breakdown digestive decomposition catabolic BOND FORMATION OR BREAKING? Bonds are formed. Bonds are broken. IS ENERGY REQUIRED OR RELEASED? NAME THAT TERM. Energy is required to form the bond. Endergonic Energy is released when the bond is broken. Exergonic HOW IS WATER INVOLVED? NAME THAT TERM. Water is released when he bond is formed. Dehydration Water is required to break the bond. Hydrolysis EXAMPLE Building a protein from individual amino acids; Building a triglyceride from glycerol and 3 fatty acids, etc Breaking a protein into individual amino acids; Breaking starch down into monosaccharides, etc. 2. Define the term enzyme and discuss the general characteristics of an enzyme. Be sure to discuss the mechanism by which most enzymes function (i.e. how do they react with their substrate and cofactor/coenzyme), and explain how most enzymes are named, giving examples when applicable. An enzyme is a biological protein catalyst that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed by the reaction. An enzyme has a very specific shape and fits together with its substrate like a lock and key through the enzyme’s active site. The enzyme and substrate come together to form the enzyme - substrate complex. Then the reaction occurs and the end-products are released and the unaltered enzyme is released and can be used over and over again. The enzyme’s active site may not always be exposed, and a substance called a coenzyme or cofactor may be required to activate the enzyme. B vitamins are examples of coenzymes and minerals are example of cofactors. Enzymes are named for the substrate they act upon. The root of the enzyme name typically comes from the substrate and the suffix -ASE is added at the end. For example, the enzyme lactase acts upon the substrate lactose. And the enzyme lipase acts upon a substrate lipid or fat. In extreme conditions, enzymes can be denatured which results in loss of function. Enzymes typically occur in a particular sequence within metabolic pathways. DIAGRAM: See your notes from class!!!! 3. Define the term substrate. A substrate is acted upon by an enzyme in a metabolic reaction. For example, the enzyme lactase acts upon the substrate lactose. 4. Explain why most enzymes need a vitamin (coenzyme) or mineral (cofactor) to function, and name the site where this coenzyme or cofactor bind the enzyme. The enzyme’s active site may not always be exposed, and a substance called a coenzyme or cofactor may be required to activate the enzyme. B vitamins are examples of coenzymes and minerals are example of cofactors 5. Name the three components of ATP and describe its function in living cells. Ribose adenine 3 phosphates 6. Write a simple chemical equation showing the reversible reaction of ATP/ADP. ATP ---- ADP + Pi 8. Compare the two major steps in cellular respiration in terms of: a. b. c. d. e. name their location in the cell; whether oxygen is required; initial compounds and end-products; number of ATP molecules produced. And draw an overview diagram of CR including this information ANAEROBIC AEROBIC Name of step(s) GLYCOLYSIS LOCATION in cell Is Oxygen Required? Starting Product(s) CYTOPLASM KREB’S CYCLE (CITRIC ACID CYLE) AND ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN MITOCHONDRION NO YES GLUCOSE (6-C) 2 PYRUVIC ACIDS 2 ATP EndProducts 2 PYRUVIC ACIDS 36 ATP WATER CARBONDIOXIDE CELLULAR RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION CYTOPLASM GLYCOLYSIS AEROBIC RESPIRATIION MITOCHONDRIA (KC, ETC) GLUCOSE (6C )→→→→→→→ PYRUVATE (2X3C) →→→→→→CO2, H2O. 36 ATP + 2ATP fermentation Lactic acid ←←←←←←←←←← 10. Describe the fate of pyruvic acid in the absence of oxygen. It is fermented to lactic acid in animal cells. 11. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of energy production. anaerobic respiration aerobic respiration Energy released 2 ATP 36 ATP 12. Name the greatest reserve fuel in the body. FAT 13. Name the specific substance that is required for each and every step of metabolism. An ENZYME is required for each and every step of metabolism. 14. Explain why an enzyme that catalyzes a step in glycolysis would not be required for a step in Beta-oxidation (i.e. fat metabolism) Because enzymes are specific for their substrates. 15. Construct a molecule of DNA. Be sure to label parts fully (if using abbreviations, make sure to provide a key). 16. Describe the function of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and RNA. DNA RNA Directs protein synthesis Assists DNA in protein synthesis 17. Explain why protein synthesis is so ultimately important in living things. Proteins have many functions in human metabolism including enzymes which regulate each and every metabolic reaction. 18. Define the term gene, and give the approximate number of genes that compose the human genome. A gene is the portion of a DNS molecule that codes for one particular protein. There are approximately 34000 genes in the human genome. 19. Distinguish ribonucleic acid (RNA) from DNA, in terms of structure, where each is located in a human cell, and the function of each. DNA RNA STRUCTURE 1. SUGAR = deoxyribose 1. ribose 2. BASES = adenine (A); 2. adenine (A); uracil (U)); thymine (T); cytosine (C); cytosine (C); and guanine (G) and guanine (G) LOCATION IN CELL FUNCTION 3. DOUBLE OR SINGLE 3. SS STRANDED? DS nucleus Made in nucleus, but functions at ribosomes in cytoplasm or in rough endoplasmic reticulum Directs protein synthesis Assist in protein synthesis 20. Name the two major steps of protein synthesis, and compare and contrast them in terms of where they occur in the cell, start products, molecules (including enzyme names) involved in each step, and end products. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS SUMMARY TABLE (outline page 15) NAME OF STEP TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION Nucleus at a ribosome either that is LOCATION IN CELL either free in the cytoplasm or on rough endoplasmic reticulum START PRODUCT DNA (GENE) Messenger RNA DNA: unwinds & unzips mRNA carries the protein code MOLECULES INVOLVED to the ribosome; AND HOW? RNA Polymerase (an enzyme) Ribosome if the protein positions the complementary synthesizing machinery; RNA nucleotides along the Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings DNA template and zips up their the appropriate amino acid to backbone. the ribosome to be incorporated into the protein.. A strand of mRNA A protein END PRODUCT 21. Describe the role of messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in protein synthesis. mRNA tRNA rRNA Carries the code for the Brings the appropriate amino Composes the ribosome along protein to be made from the acid to the ribosome to be with proteins. nucleus to the ribosome incorporated into the protein 22. Explain how amino acids are joined to form a protein. Through a peptide bond. 23. Given the following DNA sequence (gene) and the mRNA codon chart that I distributed in class, determine the peptide (protein) which will result. DNA Base Sequence Messenger RNA Base Amino Acid Sequence tRNA anticodon (GENE) Sequence (mRNA) (PROTEIN) sequence T A U MET A U A C G C T A U ILE A U A A U A C G T C C G T A A A T T G C A G G C A U U U A A ALA GLY ILE STOP C G T C C G U A A A U U 24. Describe the steps involved in DNA replication, name the location in the cell where DNA replicates, name the enzyme required for DNA replication, and explain the significance of the process. DNA replication steps TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION Location in cell NUCLEUS Enzyme that assists Significance RNA POLYMERASE N/A Results in mRNA that now carries code for protein to be Results in a protein. made to ribosome. AT RIBOSOME EITHER CYTOPLASM OR ON RER IN 25. Describe what is meant by "semi-conservative" replication. The two copies of DNA have been synthesized and each has one old strand and one new strand of DNA. 26. Define the term mutation, and explain its significance in protein synthesis. A mutation is an error in a gene (DNA sequence). Results of mutations include an enzyme that is not made at all, a protein with an altered structure/function, or a protein to be made in excess.