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LEARNING a relatively permanent change in behavior as the result of an experience. essential process enabling animals and humans to adapt to their changing environments, and thus survive. Behaviorism Explains learning by studying behavior which can be observed & measured Two main theories which psychologists studying behaviorism use to explain learning: –Classical Conditioning –Operant Conditioning CLASSICAL Conditioning - Stimulus- something that produces a reaction -Response- The reaction from a person or animal June 2 CLASSICAL Conditioning Simple form of learning in which stimulus and response work together Neutral stimulus occurs with a stimulus that evokes a response Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a similar response PAVLOV 1920s Trained dogs to associate a tone with a food-reward Before experiment the dogs showed no reaction to the tone sound After the tone is paired with food – the dogs begin to salivate when they hear the tone Terms US = (Unconditioned stimulus) = causes a response that is automatic or not learned UR = (Unconditioned response) = Automatic Response to US CS = (Conditioned stimulus) = learned response to a stimulus that was neutral CR = (Conditioned response) = learned response to neutral stim. Needed Factors for Conditioning: Strong stimulus Order in which presented is important Number of trials Spacing of trials Conditioning Terminology Taste Aversion= learned avoidance to a particular food Extinction = gradual disappearance of a conditioned response once the conditioned stimulus is no longer reinforced Conditioning Terminology Spontaneous Recovery= remember the learned behavior after time “off” Generalization = act of responding in the same way to similar stimuli Discrimination= Responding differently to stimuli that are not similar Case of “Little Albert” 1920 – published study of “Little Albert” Albert was a 11th month old boy Was not easily frightened Liked animals – psychologists then paired a loud, harsh sound with the presence of a rat..Result??? Little Albert Video Albert became frightened of rats and eventually all small, furry animals Was this ethical????? Applications of classical conditioning Two methods for reducing fears are based on the principle of extinction: Maury Flooding = a person is exposed to the (fearprovoking) harmless stimulus until the fear is extinguished Systematic desensitization = person is taught relaxation techniques & then exposed gradually to fearful stimulus Period 6 – Jan4 OTHER USES FOR CLASSICAL CONDITIONING DESENSITIZATION • Step 1 –Pictures –From a Distance –Close- up to fear COUNTERCONDITIONING – – PLEASANT STIMULUS IS PAIRED W/ UNPLEASANT STIMULUS OPERANT Conditioning Learning is strengthened when behavior is followed by reinforcement Learning from the consequences of actions OPERANT Conditioning Principles of Operant Conditioning were developed by B.F. Skinner Ideas based on studies with animals Skinner Box Typically contains: – one or more levers which an animal can press – one or more stimulus lights – one or more places in which reinforcers like food can be delivered. Reinforcement Process by which a stimulus increases the chances of a preceding behavior Types of Reinforcers Primary = reinforcers that function due to biological make-up of the organism • food, water, warmth Secondary =Value must be learned Ex. money, attention, social approval, good grades, etc. Types of Reinforcers Positive = increase frequency of the behavior they follow when applied = receives something they want = brings pleasant consequences Negative = A particular behavior is increased by the introduction of an unpleasant element - ex. = discomfort, fear, & social disapproval Pd1- Jan4 Rewards Increase the frequency of a behavior Liked reinforcers increase frequency of behavior – concrete rewards (money, toys, stickers, candy, etc.) – intangible rewards (affection, praise, attention, etc.). Punishment Unwanted events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow when applied E.L. Thorndike's Law of Effect (1) Rewards increased the likelihood of responses which preceded them (2) punishments decreased the likelihood of responses which preceded them. Therefore, punishment either decreases or eliminates a particular behavior. Schedule of reinforcement Fixed-Ratio (FR) = –Reinforcement is given after a set number of times the behavior is performed • Fixed-Interval (FI) = • Reinforcement is given after a set amount of time the behavior has been performed • Variable-Interval (VI) = • Reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time the behavior has been performed • Variable-Ratio (VR) = • Reinforcement is given after varying number of times the behavior has been performed Ex. Playing slot machines Schedule of Reinforcement When and how often reinforcement occurs Continuous- reinforcement every time a behavior occurs Partial- Not reinforced everytime Extinction- Occurs when performance is repeated without reinforcement Shaping- Way of teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing behavior in steps Cognitive Psychology • Studies what people and animals know because of learning • See learning as purposeful and not mechanical. Cognitive Psychology •Psychologists believe many behaviors are learned without reinforcement… •2 types of learning without reinforcement are: •Latent Learning •Observational Learning Cognitive Psychology •LATENT LEARNING -- Learning that remains hidden until it is needed. Observation Learning •We acquire knowledge and skills through observation and imitation. •Studied by Albert Bandura •Kids learn from parents •Most learning is done this way •Learning from the media • Is Aggression Learned? • How many hours of TV do you watch? • Most children: 2 - 4 hours a day • Most children see an average 8,000 murders and 10,000 acts of violence by the end of 6th grade.