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LEARNING
 a relatively permanent change in
behavior as the result of an
experience.
 essential process enabling animals
and humans to adapt to their
changing environments, and thus
survive.
Behaviorism
Explains learning by studying
behavior which can be observed
& measured
Two main theories which
psychologists studying behaviorism
use to explain learning:
–Classical Conditioning
–Operant Conditioning
CLASSICAL Conditioning
- Stimulus- something that
produces a reaction
-Response- The reaction from a
person or animal
June 2
CLASSICAL Conditioning
 Simple form of learning in which
stimulus and response work together
 Neutral stimulus occurs with a
stimulus that evokes a response
 Eventually, the neutral stimulus
comes to evoke a similar response
PAVLOV
 1920s
 Trained dogs to associate a tone with
a food-reward
 Before experiment the dogs showed
no reaction to the tone sound
 After the tone is paired with food –
the dogs begin to salivate when they
hear the tone
Terms
 US = (Unconditioned stimulus)
= causes a response that is
automatic or not learned
 UR = (Unconditioned response)
= Automatic Response to US
 CS = (Conditioned stimulus)
= learned response to a stimulus
that was neutral
 CR = (Conditioned response)
= learned response to neutral stim.
Needed Factors for Conditioning:
Strong stimulus
Order in which presented is
important
Number of trials
Spacing of trials
Conditioning Terminology
Taste Aversion= learned avoidance
to a particular food
Extinction = gradual
disappearance of a conditioned
response once the conditioned
stimulus is no longer reinforced
Conditioning Terminology
Spontaneous Recovery=
remember the learned behavior
after time “off”
Generalization = act of
responding in the same way to
similar stimuli
Discrimination= Responding
differently to stimuli that are not
similar
Case of “Little Albert”
 1920 – published study of “Little
Albert”
 Albert was a 11th month old boy
 Was not easily frightened
 Liked animals – psychologists then
paired a loud, harsh sound with
the presence of a rat..Result???
Little Albert Video
 Albert became frightened of rats
and eventually all small, furry
animals
 Was this ethical?????
Applications of
classical conditioning
 Two methods for reducing fears are based
on the principle of extinction:
Maury
 Flooding = a person is exposed to the (fearprovoking) harmless stimulus until the fear
is extinguished
 Systematic desensitization = person is
taught relaxation techniques & then exposed
gradually to fearful stimulus

Period 6 – Jan4
OTHER USES FOR CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
 DESENSITIZATION
• Step 1
–Pictures
–From a Distance
–Close- up to fear
 COUNTERCONDITIONING –
– PLEASANT STIMULUS IS PAIRED
W/ UNPLEASANT STIMULUS
OPERANT Conditioning
Learning is strengthened when
behavior is followed by
reinforcement
Learning from the consequences
of actions
OPERANT Conditioning
Principles of Operant
Conditioning were developed by
B.F. Skinner
Ideas based on studies with
animals
Skinner Box
Typically contains:
– one or more levers which an
animal can press
– one or more stimulus lights
– one or more places in which
reinforcers like food can be
delivered.
Reinforcement
Process by which a stimulus
increases the chances of a
preceding behavior
Types of Reinforcers
 Primary = reinforcers that function
due to biological make-up of the
organism
• food, water, warmth
 Secondary =Value must be learned Ex.
money, attention, social approval, good
grades, etc.
Types of Reinforcers
 Positive = increase frequency of the
behavior they follow when applied
= receives something they want
= brings pleasant consequences
 Negative = A particular behavior is
increased by the introduction of an
unpleasant element
- ex. = discomfort, fear, &
social disapproval
Pd1- Jan4
Rewards
 Increase the frequency of a
behavior
 Liked reinforcers increase
frequency of behavior
– concrete rewards (money, toys,
stickers, candy, etc.)
– intangible rewards (affection, praise,
attention, etc.).
Punishment
Unwanted events that
decrease the frequency of the
behavior they follow when
applied
E.L. Thorndike's
Law of Effect
 (1) Rewards increased the likelihood
of responses which preceded them
 (2) punishments decreased the
likelihood of responses which
preceded them.
 Therefore, punishment either
decreases or eliminates a particular
behavior.
Schedule of reinforcement
 Fixed-Ratio (FR) =
–Reinforcement is given after a set
number of times the behavior is
performed
• Fixed-Interval (FI) =
• Reinforcement is given after a set
amount of time the behavior has
been performed
• Variable-Interval (VI) =
• Reinforcement is given after
varying amounts of time the
behavior has been performed
• Variable-Ratio (VR) =
• Reinforcement is given after
varying number of times the
behavior has been performed
Ex. Playing slot machines
Schedule of Reinforcement
 When and how often reinforcement
occurs
 Continuous- reinforcement every
time a behavior occurs
 Partial- Not reinforced everytime
Extinction- Occurs when
performance is repeated without
reinforcement
Shaping- Way of teaching complex
behaviors by reinforcing behavior
in steps
Cognitive Psychology
• Studies what people and
animals know because of
learning
• See learning as purposeful and
not mechanical.
Cognitive Psychology
•Psychologists believe many
behaviors are learned without
reinforcement…
•2 types of learning without
reinforcement are:
•Latent Learning
•Observational Learning
Cognitive Psychology
•LATENT LEARNING -- Learning that
remains hidden until it is needed.
Observation Learning
•We acquire knowledge and skills
through observation and imitation.
•Studied by Albert Bandura
•Kids learn from parents
•Most learning is done this way
•Learning from the media
• Is Aggression Learned?
• How many hours of TV do you watch?
• Most children: 2 - 4 hours a day
• Most children see an average 8,000
murders and 10,000 acts of violence by
the end of 6th grade.