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Week 1 Introduction to Psychology •Overview •Scientific Method •Brief History •Future of Psychology Definition of Psychology Psychology the scientific study of behavior and mental processes Observable behaviors Unobservable thought processes Why, where & how psychology is used… The Biological foundations of behavior biopsychology biological bases of behavior Sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking experimental psychology process of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking cognitive psychology higher mental processes Why, where & how psychology is used… Understanding change and individual differences developmental psychology how people grow and change from conception to death personality psychology attempts to explain both consistency and change in a person’s behavior over time Why, where & how psychology is used… Physical and mental health health psychology relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease clinical psychology study, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior counseling psychology educational, social, and career adjustment problems Why, where & how psychology is used… Physical and mental health educational psychology teaching and learning processes school psychology assessing children with academic or emotional problems Why, where & how psychology is used… Understanding our social networks social & group psychology how people are affected by others Multicultural psychology psychological factors related to cultural behavior and development psychological factors of special interest groups such as women, gay & lesbian clients, clergy Why, where & how psychology is used… Understanding our social networks industrial-organizational psychology psychology of the workplace consumer psychology people’s buying habits, effects of advertising cross-cultural psychology psychological functioning of various cultures and ethnic groups Specialization areas: (Feldman, 1999) Newer specialty areas virtual reality & cyberpsychology telehealth evolutionary psychology clinical neuropsychology environmental psychology forensic psychology sport and exercise psychology program evaluation Pie chart of specialized research (Kohn & Kohn, 1998) Why, where & how psychology is used… Psychologists workplace 33% universities and colleges 22% self-employed 19% private for-profit companies 9% private not-for-profit organizations 7% state or local government 5% schools 5% government (Feldman, 1999) Why, where & how psychology is used… Psychologists: a statistical portrait 60% male but the % women is increasing Most found in the United States (about 2/3) Less than 6% minority (Feldman, 1999) Education of a psychologist How do people become psychologists? PhD PsyD Master’s degree Empiricism Scientific psychology builds on the philosophy of empiricism that knowledge comes through experience and observation, not through speculation. Tabula Rasa – at birth minds are like a blank slate so everything we learn must be observed and experienced. Critical Thinking Scientific psychology involves critical thinking, assessing claims and making judgments about their accuracy based on well-supported evidence. Theory Scientific psychologists gather evidence from research on particular phenomenon. Then, they propose theories, or explanations to account for, predict and suggest ways of controlling certain phenomena. Theories help organize results in a useful manner. Hypothesis Scientific psychologists make specific assumptions or predictions based on data that can be tested to determine their accuracy. Hypotheses are educated guesses. (Kohn & Kohn, 1998) (Kohn & Kohn, 1998) Scientific Method n Theory - A coherent set of interrelated ideas that helps to make predictions and explain data n Hypothesis - Specific assumptions or predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy The Scientific Method involves 3 steps: n Collect information (data) n Draw conclusions n Revise research conclusions or theory Scientific Method in Psychology (Richardson, 1999) Develop theory The color of a race car is related to its racing speed. Form hypothesis Racing cars with red paint run slower than non-red cars. Test hypothesis Record top speed and color of many different cars and analyze the data. Refine theory Do the data support the theory? Revise the theory to better fit the data. Research Strategies How does Psychology describe, predict & explain behavior and mental processes? 1. Observational Studies 2. Correlational Studies 3. Experiments (Richardson, 1999) Research aims to: Describe Predict Control Explain Phenomena Research Methods Laboratory observation n Observations of behavior in a controlled setting with many of the complex factors of the “real world” removed Naturalistic observation n Observations of behavior in real-world setting with no effort made to manipulate or control the situation Types of Observational Studies Naturalistic Observation Observe behavior of organisms in natural environment. Problem: Like other Observational techniques, behavior is observed, not explained. (Richardson, 1999) Research Methods Interviews - Asking questions to find out about a person’s experiences and attitudes Look out for: Social desirability * The tendency of participants to tell the interviewer what they think is socially acceptable or desirable rather than what they truly feel or think Questionnaires (surveys) - Similar to structured interviews except that the respondents read the questions and mark their answers on paper rather than verbally responding to an interviewer Types of Observational Studies The Survey Study of a large number of individuals in less depth. Problem: Surveys are vulnerable to biased sample error. Biased samples do not represent the general population. Research Methods Case study n An in-depth look at a single individual (or organization), used mainly by clinical psychologists when the unique aspects of an individual’s life (or organization’s development) cannot be duplicated. The Case Study Study of a small number of individuals in great depth. Problem: A small number of individuals may not represent the general population. (Richardson, 1999) Research Methods Standardized tests - Tests that require people to answer a series of written and/or verbal questions. Individual’s test score is totaled to yield a single score. Individual’s score is compared with the scores of a large group of similar people. Research Methods Correlational Research Research with the goal of describing the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. Correlations Activity level Do people become less active as they get older? (-) r Age r - statistical relationship between 2 variables (activity level & age) (Richardson, 1999) Research Methods Experimental Research - Allows psychologists to discover behavior’s causes. Experiment - A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated and all other factors are held constant. Experimental Research Method n Independent variable - The manipulated, influential, experimental factor in an experiment. n Dependent variable - The factor that is measured in an experiment. It can change as the independent variable is manipulated. Experimental Research Methods n Experimental group - The group who experience is manipulated n Control group - A comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor n Random assignment - Assignment of participants to experimental and control groups by chance. Experiments Control Condition Placebo Random Assignment Experimental Condition Real Medication (Richardson, 1999) Experimental Research Warnings n Watch out for: Experimenter bias - The influence of the experimenter’s own expectations on the outcome of the research. Research participant bias - The influence of research participants’ belief. Placebo effect - Occurs when participants’ expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce the desired outcome. Experimental Research n Double-blind experiment - Neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group treatment, produce the desired outcome. This helps reduce biases. Brief History of Psychology Structuralism (Wundt, 1870s) Fundamental elements that form the foundation of thinking, consciousness, and emotions Introspection Functionalism (James, 1890s) The function of mental activity and behavior Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler, Frankl, 1912-30s) “The whole is different from the sum of its parts” Brief History of Psychology Behaviorism (Watson, Pavlov & Skinner, 1920-50s) Watson proposed psychology should focus on observable behavior such as responses to stimuli, in case of “Little Albert and the rat” in 1915 Pavlov tracked Classical Conditioning of dogs’ responses to stimuli associated with feeding times, bells, salivation, etc. in 1904 Skinner proposed Operant Conditioning in 1953 with his Skinner box Psychoanalysis (Freud, 1920s) Psychological processes and hidden conflicts with the mind motivated behavior. These unconscious drives can cause anxiety, stress, personality disorders and neurosis. Free association, dream interpretation, stages of development Humanism (Rogers & Maslow, 1950s) Humans are capable of inner change through exploring personal growth, unconditional positive regard, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Modern perspectives The biological perspective Behavior from the perspective of biological functioning (nature) The psychodynamic perspective Behavior is motivated by inner forces (nature & nurture) The cognitive perspective How people know, understand, and think about the world (nurture) More Modern Perspectives The behavioral perspective observable behavior should be the focus of study The humanistic perspective people are in control of their lives free will Key Questions in Psychology Nature versus Nurture how much of our behavior is due to heredity and how much is due to environment? Conscious versus unconscious determinants of behavior how much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware? Key Questions Observable behavior versus internal mental processes Should psychology concentrate solely on observable behavior? Freedom of choice versus determinism How much of behavior is a matter of choice? (Richardson, 1999) Key Issues Individual differences versus universal principles How much of behavior is a consequence of the unique and special qualities that each of us possesses? (Richardson, 1999) (Richardson, 1999) Future of Psychology Psychology will become more specialized New perspectives will evolve Explanations for behavior will include genetic, environmental, biological, and social influences (Feldman, 1999) Future of Psychology Psychological treatment will become more accessible and socially acceptable Psychology’s influence will grow Psychology will consider the country’s growing diversity (Feldman, 1999) References Feldman, M. (1999). Making the grade. CD-Rom. McGraw Hill Company. Retrieved May 2002 from World Wide Web at: http://www.mcgrawhill.com. Kohn, A. J. & Kohn, W. (1998). The Integrator, 2.0. CD-Rom. Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning. Richardson, K. (1998). Introduction to psychology. Retrieved May 2002 from the World Wide Web at: http://www.monmouth.edu.