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Week 1
Introduction to Psychology
•Overview
•Scientific Method
•Brief History
•Future of Psychology
Definition of Psychology
Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and
mental processes
Observable behaviors
Unobservable thought processes
Why, where & how psychology
is used…
The Biological foundations of behavior
biopsychology
biological bases of behavior
Sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking
experimental psychology
process of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking
cognitive psychology
higher mental processes
Why, where & how psychology
is used…
Understanding change and individual
differences
developmental psychology
how people grow and change from conception
to death
personality psychology
attempts to explain both consistency and
change in a person’s behavior over time
Why, where & how psychology
is used…
Physical and mental health
health psychology
relationship between psychological factors and physical
ailments or disease
clinical psychology
study, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior
counseling psychology
educational, social, and career adjustment problems
Why, where & how psychology
is used…
Physical and mental health
educational psychology
teaching and learning processes
school psychology
assessing children with academic or emotional
problems
Why, where & how psychology
is used…
Understanding our social networks
social & group psychology
how people are affected by others
Multicultural psychology
psychological factors related to cultural
behavior and development
psychological factors of special interest groups
such as women, gay & lesbian clients, clergy
Why, where & how psychology
is used…
Understanding our social networks
industrial-organizational psychology
psychology of the workplace
consumer psychology
people’s buying habits, effects of advertising
cross-cultural psychology
psychological functioning of various cultures
and ethnic groups
Specialization areas:
(Feldman, 1999)
Newer specialty areas
virtual reality & cyberpsychology
telehealth
evolutionary psychology
clinical neuropsychology
environmental psychology
forensic psychology
sport and exercise psychology
program evaluation
Pie chart of specialized research
(Kohn & Kohn, 1998)
Why, where & how psychology
is used…
Psychologists workplace
33% universities and colleges
22% self-employed
19% private for-profit companies
9% private not-for-profit organizations
7% state or local government
5% schools
5% government
(Feldman, 1999)
Why, where & how psychology
is used…
Psychologists: a statistical portrait
60% male but the % women is increasing
Most found in the United States
(about 2/3)
Less than 6% minority
(Feldman, 1999)
Education of a psychologist
How do people become psychologists?
PhD
PsyD
Master’s degree
Empiricism
Scientific psychology builds on the
philosophy of empiricism that
knowledge comes through experience
and observation, not through
speculation.
Tabula Rasa – at birth minds are like a
blank slate so everything we learn must be
observed and experienced.
Critical Thinking
Scientific psychology involves critical
thinking, assessing claims and making
judgments about their accuracy based
on well-supported evidence.
Theory
Scientific psychologists gather evidence
from research on particular
phenomenon. Then, they propose
theories, or explanations to account for,
predict and suggest ways of controlling
certain phenomena. Theories help
organize results in a useful manner.
Hypothesis
Scientific psychologists make specific
assumptions or predictions based on
data that can be tested to determine
their accuracy.
Hypotheses are educated guesses.
(Kohn & Kohn, 1998)
(Kohn & Kohn, 1998)
Scientific Method
n Theory - A coherent set of interrelated ideas
that helps to make predictions and explain data
n Hypothesis - Specific assumptions or
predictions that can be tested to determine their
accuracy
The Scientific Method involves 3 steps:
n Collect information (data)
n Draw conclusions
n Revise research conclusions or theory
Scientific Method in Psychology
(Richardson, 1999)
Develop
theory
The color of a race car is related to its
racing speed.
Form
hypothesis
Racing cars with red paint run
slower than non-red cars.
Test
hypothesis
Record top speed and color of many
different cars and analyze the data.
Refine
theory
Do the data support the theory?
Revise the theory to better fit the data.
Research Strategies
How does Psychology describe, predict & explain
behavior and mental processes?
1. Observational Studies
2. Correlational Studies
3. Experiments
(Richardson, 1999)
Research aims to:
Describe
Predict
Control
Explain
Phenomena
Research Methods
Laboratory observation
n Observations of behavior in a controlled
setting with many of the complex factors of
the “real world” removed
Naturalistic observation
n Observations of behavior in real-world
setting with no effort made to manipulate or
control the situation
Types of Observational Studies
Naturalistic Observation
Observe behavior of
organisms in natural
environment.
Problem:
Like other Observational
techniques, behavior is
observed, not explained.
(Richardson, 1999)
Research Methods
Interviews - Asking questions to find out about a
person’s experiences and attitudes
Look out for: Social desirability
* The tendency of participants to tell the interviewer
what they think is socially acceptable or desirable
rather than what they truly feel or think
Questionnaires (surveys) - Similar to structured
interviews except that the respondents read the
questions and mark their answers on paper rather
than verbally responding to an interviewer
Types of Observational Studies
The Survey
Study of a large number of
individuals in less depth.
Problem:
Surveys are vulnerable to
biased sample error. Biased
samples do not represent the
general population.
Research Methods
Case study
n An in-depth look at a single
individual (or organization), used
mainly by clinical psychologists when
the unique aspects of an individual’s
life (or organization’s development)
cannot be duplicated.
The Case Study
Study of a small
number of
individuals in great
depth.
Problem:
A small number of
individuals may not
represent the
general population.
(Richardson, 1999)
Research Methods
Standardized tests - Tests that
require people to answer a series of
written and/or verbal questions.
Individual’s test score is totaled to
yield a single score. Individual’s score
is compared with the scores of a
large group of similar people.
Research Methods
Correlational Research Research with the goal of
describing the strength of the
relationship between two or
more events or characteristics.
Correlations
Activity level
Do people become less active as they get older?

  
   
(-) r
    
   
   
 
Age
r - statistical relationship
between 2 variables (activity
level & age)
(Richardson, 1999)
Research Methods
Experimental Research - Allows
psychologists to discover behavior’s causes.
Experiment - A carefully regulated procedure
in which one or more factors believed to
influence the behavior being studied are
manipulated and all other factors are held
constant.
Experimental Research Method
n Independent variable - The manipulated,
influential, experimental factor in an
experiment.
n Dependent variable - The factor that is
measured in an experiment. It can change as
the independent variable is manipulated.
Experimental Research Methods
n Experimental group - The group who
experience is manipulated
n Control group - A comparison group that is
treated in every way like the experimental group
except for the manipulated factor
n Random assignment - Assignment of
participants to experimental and control groups
by chance.
Experiments
Control
Condition
Placebo
Random
Assignment
Experimental
Condition
Real Medication
(Richardson, 1999)
Experimental Research Warnings
n Watch out for:
Experimenter bias - The influence of the
experimenter’s own expectations on the
outcome of the research.
Research participant bias - The influence of
research participants’ belief.
Placebo effect - Occurs when participants’
expectations, rather than the experimental
treatment, produce the desired outcome.
Experimental Research
n Double-blind experiment - Neither the
experimenter nor the participants are aware of
which participants are in the experimental group
treatment, produce the desired outcome. This
helps reduce biases.
Brief History of Psychology
Structuralism (Wundt, 1870s)
Fundamental elements that form the foundation of
thinking, consciousness, and emotions
Introspection
Functionalism (James, 1890s)
The function of mental activity and behavior
Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer, Koffka,
Kohler, Frankl, 1912-30s)
“The whole is different from the sum of its parts”
Brief History of Psychology
Behaviorism (Watson, Pavlov & Skinner, 1920-50s)
Watson proposed psychology should focus on observable behavior
such as responses to stimuli, in case of “Little Albert and the rat” in
1915
Pavlov tracked Classical Conditioning of dogs’ responses to stimuli
associated with feeding times, bells, salivation, etc. in 1904
Skinner proposed Operant Conditioning in 1953 with his Skinner box
Psychoanalysis (Freud, 1920s)
Psychological processes and hidden conflicts with the mind motivated
behavior. These unconscious drives can cause anxiety, stress,
personality disorders and neurosis.
Free association, dream interpretation, stages of development
Humanism (Rogers & Maslow, 1950s)
Humans are capable of inner change through exploring personal
growth, unconditional positive regard, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Modern perspectives
The biological perspective
Behavior from the perspective of biological
functioning (nature)
The psychodynamic perspective
Behavior is motivated by inner forces
(nature & nurture)
The cognitive perspective
How people know, understand, and think about
the world (nurture)
More Modern Perspectives
The behavioral perspective
observable behavior should be the focus of
study
The humanistic perspective
people are in control of their lives
free will
Key Questions in Psychology
Nature versus Nurture
how much of our behavior is due to
heredity and how much is due to
environment?
Conscious versus unconscious
determinants of behavior
how much of our behavior is produced by
forces of which we are fully aware?
Key Questions
Observable behavior versus internal
mental processes
Should psychology concentrate solely on
observable behavior?
Freedom of choice versus determinism
How much of behavior is a matter of
choice?
(Richardson, 1999)
Key Issues
Individual differences versus universal
principles
How much of behavior is a consequence of
the unique and special qualities that each
of us possesses?
(Richardson, 1999)
(Richardson, 1999)
Future of Psychology
Psychology will become more specialized
New perspectives will evolve
Explanations for behavior will include
genetic, environmental, biological, and
social influences
(Feldman, 1999)
Future of Psychology
Psychological treatment will become
more accessible and socially acceptable
Psychology’s influence will grow
Psychology will consider the country’s
growing diversity
(Feldman, 1999)
References
Feldman, M. (1999). Making the grade. CD-Rom.
McGraw Hill Company. Retrieved May 2002 from
World Wide Web at: http://www.mcgrawhill.com.
Kohn, A. J. & Kohn, W. (1998). The Integrator, 2.0.
CD-Rom. Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning.
Richardson, K. (1998). Introduction to psychology.
Retrieved May 2002 from the World Wide Web at:
http://www.monmouth.edu.