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Social Psychologists look at human behavior in the context of societal rules and norms. They see human behavior as primarily shaped by social interactions. They recognize that people behave differently in the presence of others. 1 Which of the Following Is an Example of a Group? Cheerleaders at a school A high school football team People lined up to vote Women at a baby shower Pedestrians at a crosswalk 2 Group 3 In order for there to be a group, there must be more than one person and there must be face-toface interaction. Cheerleaders at a School 4 Tennis Team 5 People Lined Up to Vote 6 Women at a Baby Shower 7 Pedestrians in a Crosswalk 8 Primary Groups 9 Families, couples in love, street gangs, social clubs Relationships that are face-to-face and personal term “primary group”--coined by Charles Cooley two or more people who have a significant amount of interaction with one another must know a lot about one another, and share strong, intimate emotional ties “the nurseries of human nature” The values and norms people learn in primary groups tend to remain with them for life Four Features of a Primary Group Continuous, face-toface interaction Strong ties Multifaceted Enduring 10 Secondary Groups 11 Organized around specific, impersonal goals Not as much interaction as in primary groups School classes, political parties, sports teams Lots of primary groups within the secondary group Secondary Group Characteristics 12 Limited face-to-face interaction Modest or weak personal identity with the group Weak ties of affection Limited/shallow relations Not very enduring Task oriented Why Join a Group ? 13 To satisfy the need to belong To compare experiences To use group standards to evaluate ourselves For companionship To lessen anxiety and provide comfort Group accomplishments Attribution Theory People usually attribute others’ behavior either to internal dispositions or external situations. – – 14 INTERNAL or DISPOSITIONAL—attitude, work ethic, morals, motivation EXTERNAL or SITUATIONAL—other people, the environment, the task, support Fundamental Attribution Error 15 In judging others, we overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the influence of situations. – Billy failed the AP English exam because he is dumb. – NOT, Billy failed because the teacher was absent for 3 months on maternity leave. Actor-Observer Bias We judge ourselves AND others. Actor part—When we are in the situation, we judge ourselves on environmental/external factors. – I failed the test because the teacher sucked. Observer part—When we are not in the situation, we judge others on dispositional/internal factors. – She failed the test because she didn’t study. 16 Self-Serving Bias How we judge ourselves: – Bad things happen because of external situations. – Good things happen because of our internal dispositions/personal factors. 17 I failed the AP Computer Science test because the test is too hard. I passed the AP Biology test because I am amazingly smart. Self-Effacing Bias In other cultures (for example, Asian cultures), people tend to do the opposite of the Self-Serving Bias. – Bad things are because of internal disposition. – Good things are because of external situations. 18 I failed the AP Chemistry exam because I didn’t work hard enough. I passed the AP Chemistry exam because Mrs. Wagoner is a beast. Individualist vs. Collectivist Culture Individualist: putting personal goals ahead of group goals & defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes, not group memberships Collectivist: putting group goals ahead of personal goals & defining one’s identity in terms of the groups you belong to Social Facilitation Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others 20 Social Loafing People tend to extend less effort when they are working in a group. They assume that the group will do the work. Deindividuation To be less self-conscious and less restrained when in a group; feels anonymous Message boards/forums an example Group Polarization If a group is like-minded, discussions will strengthen its prevailing opinions. If a group has opposing opinions, the opposing groups will polarize even more. Risky Shift--making riskier choices when part of a group Social Trap and Prisoner’s Dilemma when students make decisions to help themselves at a cost of the class’s well-being (Social Trap) (overfishing, deforestation) When two people don’t cooperate even if it is in their best interest to cooperate (Prisoner’s Dilemma) Peer Groups A group of friends or associates of about the same age and social position Form cliques, clubs, gangs 25 Reference Groups 26 A group that serves as a standard for evaluating one’s achievement, behavior, or values Group Dynamics 27 The impact of group size The dyad, or twoperson group The triad Multiples (division of labor) The Triad 28 • In a triad, one person may make a big difference in the group • when a couple has their first child, their lives change dramatically. Whenever they want to go somewhere, they either need to get together everything they need to take the baby along, or they need to hire a babysitter. Sleepless nights, day care, and preschool also present new challenges. • Finally, the relationship between the parents may change as well. Leadership Groups need leaders for two reasons 1. To direct tasks 2. Maintain good spirits Groupthink – 29 – what happens when group members are isolated from their social or moral environment: they end up making decisions that appear from the inside to make perfect sense but are in fact fundamentally flawed Kennedy—Bay of Pigs/Cuba Groupthink 30 Emphasizes group decisions in large organizations People working together will make better decisions than an individual Sometimes individuals acting alone in large organizations or bureaucracies can make decisions that reflect their own personal bias. If that individual can convince other members in the group that such decisions are based on sound, fundamental ideas, then the organization starts to fall into groupthink. When Does Groupthink Occur? 31 When group members are unable to evaluate other available options Inability to comprehend negative consequences Conditions for Groupthink 32 The group is isolated from the outside There are time limits Not having an impartial leader 33 Examples of Groupthink 34 JFK’S invasion of Cuba Nixon’s Watergate fiasco Waco, Texas standoff In-groups 35 A group with which a person identifies and feels that he or she belongs A “greedy group” Characteristics of In-groups 36 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sacrifice Investment Renunciation Communication Mortification Transcendence Out-groups A group with which a person does not identify and does not feel that he or she belongs to 37 Gangs/Gang Locations L.A. is the gang capital of America Chicago, Seattle, Kansas City Importance of drugs 38 Why Join a Gang? 39 Power Identity A surrogate family Security Attitudes 40 41 Definition of “Attitude” 42 A predisposition to respond in a particular way 3 main elements 1. A belief or opinion 2. A feeling about something 3. A tendency to act toward something in a particular way Attitudes Are feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose our reactions to people, objects and events. If we feel that someone is mean, we may feel dislike for the person and act unfriendly. 43 Elaboration Likelihood Model 44 Petty & Cacciopo – Central Route to Persuasion—using analytical or systematic information regarding the issue to persuade others—more thoughtful, more durable – Peripheral Route to Persuasion—incidental cues, endorsements cause snap judgments—less thoughtful, less durable—using colors, attractive salespeople Factors in Persuasion SOURCE Factors: Who is persuading MESSAGE Factors: What is the message CHANNEL Factors: How is the message delivered RECEIVER Factors: Who is being persuaded Source factors—Who? 46 Credibility Expertise Trustworthiness Likability Attractiveness Similarity Message factors—What? 47 Fear appeal vs. logic One-sided vs. two-sided argument Repetition Channel factors—By what means? 48 In person On television Via audio Others? Receiver factors—To whom? 49 Personality Expectations Preexisting attitudes Intelligence Cognitive Dissonance—Leon Festinger We become aware that our attitudes and actions don’t coincide, so we experience this tension. We try to bring them together. – – – 50 Rationalization Changing actions Denial Zimbardo on Cog. Dissonance Cognitive Sources for Persuasion 51 Factual information Cognitive dissonance Emotional Sources for Persuasion Strong feelings without knowing why – – 52 a commercial or political advertisement might try to change people’s attitudes by employing a series of emotionally charged images accompanied by with some cognitive information like on-screen words or audio narration. pictures are processed in the right hemisphere of the brain, which also processes many of our emotions Classical conditioning Subliminal techniques Size of an Object 53 Close-ups = larger than life, sense of urgency, used to sell necessary products Far away = luxury items, removes the sense of urgency and replaces it with a feeling of extravagance Social Sources for Persuasion Culture Reference groups as a standard for evaluation 54 Behavioral Sources for Persuasion Behavior itself can cause attitudes to change “Doing is believing.” 55 How Are Attitudes Measured? Psychologists use many different techniques to measure attitudes 56 Public Opinion Polls Selecting a representative sample is crucial Important to avoid biases (Social desirability bias) 57 Attitude Scales 58 Likert Scale 1. Strongly agree 2. Agree 3. Undecided 4. Disagree 5. Strongly disagree Semantic Differential 59 asks people to rate others by using one of two adjectives that are polar opposites of one another Good/bad Happy/sad Beautiful/ugly Wise/foolish Funny/humorless Unobtrusive Methods 60 Milgram/lost letter Letters addressed to less “acceptable” groups and organizations were not mailed as often as letters addressed to charities or groups considered beneficial to society. How Are Attitudes Changed? 61 People are always trying to change your attitude Conformity 62 Asch conformity study, 1950 People will usually conform to other people’s ideas even when they disagree with those ideas Asch’s Experiment Asch Experiment (2 min) 63 Which line segment, is closest in length to the sample line: a, b, or c? Obedience to Authority 64 Stanley Milgram—1962 The psychologist as experimenter designed to determine the conditions under which people would obey or defy authority Would they obey the commands of an authority figure or pay attention to the cries of a victim who seemed to be undergoing extreme suffering? Explains the atrocities committed by the Nazis during World War II? Who Were Milgram’s Subjects? 65 In all but one version of the experiment, the subjects were males 40%=skilled and unskilled 40%=white collar (sales and business) 20%=professionals 20 percent of subjects were in their 20s, 20 percent were in their 30s, and 20 percent were in their 40s The Set-Up 66 67 Making Mistakes 68 After 75 volts are administered for a mistake, the learner moans At 90 volts, the learner cries out in pain After 180 volts, the learner screams, saying he cannot stand the pain, and then begins to bang on the wall 39 Psychiatrists Surveyed Believed That… 69 Most subjects would stop at 150 volts Only 4% would go as high as 300 volts One in 1000 would go to 450 volts 5 Versions of the Experiment 70 First version: all men, 65% went all the way (450 volts) Experimenter absent: 20.5% Women: 65% Experimenter chooses shock level: 2.5% High school students: 85% By the way…. The shocks were not real! Milgram Experiment 5 min 71 Why Do People Obey? American society places a high value on obedience to people in positions of authority (Derren Brown) 72 Prestige And Credibility 73 Volunteers were influenced by their role as a subject in an experiment Done by a professor at Yale university Not Everyone Is Equally Obedient 74 Sadistic or obedient? Personality variables Life experiences Civil Disobedience 75 Rosa Parks and the Montgomery bus boycott Aggression 76 Violent Crimes 77 1.5 million violent crimes are committed in the U.S. each year, including 90,000 rapes and 20,000 murders 3 ½ times more likely to be murdered by a relative Why Are We Aggressive? Thanatos—Freud’s death instinct View of evolutionary psychologists – 78 our aggressive behavior is related to our evolutionary heritage. It is a part of the Darwinian notion of “survival of the fittest.” Hereditary aggression The painting depicts a 10-year-old Vietnamese orphan girl who had been befriended by a U.S. Green Beret during the Vietnam War. He used to give her chocolate bars. She eventually shot and killed him. The Brain and Aggression Amygdala Hypothalamus Prefrontal cortex – – 79 plays a role in processing violent urges Years ago, surgeons often performed pre-frontal lobotomies on violent patients Hormones and Aggression 80 Testosterone, a primary male hormone Alcohol and other drugs Learning and Aggression 81 People learn aggression by watching and imitating others People become more aggressive if rewarded Frustration-Aggression Model Pornography Connection 82 •According to some psychologists, there is a direct link between different types of pornography and sexual aggression—especially between violent pornography and rape. •Child pornography has a corresponding correlation with pedophilia and/or child molestation. •According to serial killer Ted Bundy pornography not only influenced his criminal behavior, but also influenced the behavior of every one of the inmates he came in contact with while he was sitting on death row in a Florida prison. •Bundy brutally killed more than 37 young women and was eventually executed. Altruism/Unselfishness Concern for Another’s Welfare 83 The Cost–Reward Theory People find the sight of another person being victimized as anxiety-provoking; helping relieves this anxiety Diffusion of responsibility – 84 Sometimes if there are others present during a crisis, people assume that someone else will step in to aid in the situation. Bystander Effect 85 Kitty Genovese Darley & Latane, 1969 Diffusion of Responsibility Empathy-Altruism Theory 86 People are more likely to act altruistically— even when the cost of helping is high—if they feel empathy toward the person in need Evolutionary Theory 87 “Survival of the fittest”: A person will risk their life for someone else because if they survive, it increases the likelihood that their traits will endure through generations Attitude and Prejudice 88 Prejudice is a preconceived notion toward a person or a group Prejudice is strengthened by stereotyping Discrimination is an action motivated by prejudice Attraction Proximity— geographic nearness is friendship’s most powerful predictor Mere Exposure Effect If you are neutral about something, you tend to learn to be attracted to or start liking it if you have continued exposure. Example: Remember the Titans Your own face—pictures Laws of Attraction Similarity Attractiveness – – Average Symmetry Reciprocity Robber’s Cave Experiment Superordinate Goals (Muzafer Sherif) Two competitive groups, when given a superordinate goal, will work together for the good of both groups. Example: Remember the Titans Example: When Democrats and Republicans worked together after 9/11 Stanford Prison Experiment Phil Zimbardo The Power of the Situation Social Roles: widely shared expectations about how people in certain positions are supposed to behave Stanford Prison Experiment 14 min Social Influence Strategies Foot-in-the-Door Technique: small request first, then bigger request Lowball Technique: commit to an attractive proposition before revealing hidden costs Door-in-the-Face Technique: Ask for something huge, get turned down, and then ask for something more reasonable Representativeness Heuristic When someone makes a judgment or choice based on how well a choice represents what you are looking for Choosing Mrs. Crain over Mrs. Thomas for a basketball team before you even see what their skills are Availability Heuristic When someone makes a decision based on what has been readily available (in memory/experiences) rather than on real information Example about parents’ worries