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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Neurons, Hormones,
and the Brain
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Study of the brain
4
Neuropsychologists
Study the brain and the rest of the nervous system in hopes of
gaining a better understanding of behavior.
Includes the study of the biological foundations of
consciousness, perception, memory, emotion, stress, and
mental disorders.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Nervous System
BASIC ANATOMY
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The central nervous
system
Brain and Spinal cord
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Spinal reflexes
4
Automatic behaviors that occur on their own,
without any help from the brain
Ex. pulling your hand
away from a burning
hot surface.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The peripheral nervous
system
Handles the
central nervous
system’s input
and output
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
• Sympathetic nervous
system
• Parasympathetic nervous
system
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Organization of the
nervous system
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
NEURONS
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Neurons
•The brain’s communication
specialists, transmitting information
to, from, and within the central
nervous system
Glial cells
•Provide the neurons with nutrients,
insulate them, protect the brain from
toxic agents, and remove cellular
debris when neurons die.
•communicate chemically with each
other and with neurons.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Structure of a neuron
Dendrites
Receive information from other
neurons and transmit messages
toward the cell body.
Cell body
Keeps the neuron alive and
determines whether it should fire.
Axon
Transmits messages away from the
cell body to other neurons, or to
muscles or glands.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Myelin sheath
4
•A fatty material that may surround the axon
of a neuron
•Speeds up the conduction of neural
impulses
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Types of neurons
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Neurons in the news
4
Neurogenesis
The production of new neurons from immature stem cells
Stem cells
Immature cells that renew themselves and have the potential to
develop into mature cells
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Stem-cell research
4
•Embryonic stem cells can differentiate into any kind of human
cell.
•In recent years, scientists have successfully reprogrammed
cells from adult organs (skin cells), to become stem cells. These
are called “induced pluripotent stem (IPS)” cells.
•Patient-advocacy groups hope that transplanted stem cells will
eventually help people recover from diseases of the brain (such
as Parkinson’s) and from damage to the spinal cord and other
parts of the body.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Action potential
•A brief change in electrical
voltage that occurs between the
inside and outside of an axon
when a neuron is stimulated
•Produces an electric impulse that
travels down the axon into the
axon terminal and stimulates the
release of neurotransmitters
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
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Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Communication
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Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
How neurons
communicate
•Axon terminals release
neurotransmitters from synaptic
vesicles.
•Neurotransmitters enter
synapse.
•Neurotransmitters bind to
receptors that they fit.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Neurotransmitter
•Chemical released by
a transmitting neuron at
the synapse that alters
the activity of a
receiving neuron
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
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Major neurotransmitters
1. Serotonin - sleep, appetite, sensory perception, temperature regulation,
pain suppression, and mood
2. Dopamine - voluntary movement, learning, memory, emotion, pleasure or
reward, and, possibly, response to novelty
3. Acetylcholine – muscular action, cognitive functioning, memory and
emotion – Alzheimer’s patients have a loss of brain cells that produce
acetylcholine
4. Norepinephrine – increased heart rate, slowing of intestinal activity
during stress, learning, memory, dreaming, waking, sleep and emotion
5. GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) - major inhibitory neurotransmitter in
the brain; abnormal levels linked to sleep and eating disorders
6. Glutamate - major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, and is
released by about 90 percent of the brain’s neurons
7. Endorphins – reduce pain, promote pleasure
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The endocrine system
Endocrine glands
release hormones into
the bloodstream…
…Hormones are
chemical substances
that affect the
functioning of other
organs.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Hormones
4
Melatonin
•Regulates daily biological rhythms and promotes sleep.
Oxytocin
•Facilitates lactation and, with vasopressin, facilitates bonding at birth.
Adrenal hormones
•Involved in emotions and stress
Ex. Cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine
Sex hormones
•Regulate development and functioning of reproductive organs, as well as secondary
sexual characteristics in males and females.
Ex. Androgens, estrogens, and progesterone
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Which is correct?
4
Which type of nervous-system
chemical enables neurons to excite
or inhibit each other?
A. Neurotransmitters
B. Endorphins
C. Hormones
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Which is correct?
Which type of nervous-system
chemical affects functioning of
target organs and tissues?
A. Neurotransmitters
B. Endorphins
C. Hormones
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Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
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Mapping The Brain
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Electroencephalogram
(EEG)
•A recording of neural
activity detected by
electrodes
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Transcranial magnetic
stimulation (TMS)
4
Involves delivering an electrical current
through a wire coil on a person’s head
Can be used to
•Produce motor responses
•Temporarily inactivate an area of the brain
•Treat depression (however the effectiveness of TMS for this use is
unclear)
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Positron emission
tomography
4
A method for analyzing biochemical activity in the brain, using
injections of a glucose-like substance containing a radioactive
element
Active areas have
increased blood flow.
Different tasks show
distinct activity patterns.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI)
Method for studying body and brain tissue
Magnetic fields produce
vibrations in atoms.
These signals are detected
by special receivers.
A computer turns them into
pictures of the brain.
Functional MRI (fMRI)
accomplishes this at a
much higher rate than MRI.
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Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
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Anatomy of the Brain
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The brain stem
Pons
Involved in sleeping, waking,
and dreaming
Medulla
Responsible for certain
automatic functions such as
breathing and heart rate
Reticular activating
system
Arouses cortex and screens
incoming information
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The cerebellum
•Regulates movement and
balance
•Involved in remembering
simple skills and acquired
reflexes
•Plays a part in:
1. Analyzing sensory
information
2. Solving problems
3. Understanding words
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The thalamus
Relays sensory
messages to the
cerebral cortex
Includes all sensory
messages except those
of smell, which are
“processed” by the
olfactory bulb
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Hypothalamus and
pituitary gland
Involved in drives vital to
survival
Hunger, thirst, emotion, sex, and
reproduction
Controls the autonomic nervous
system
Pituitary gland
Small endocrine gland which
releases hormones and regulates
other endocrine glands
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The amygdala
Responsible for
Arousal
Regulation of emotion
Initial emotional response to
sensory information
Plays important role in
Forming and retrieving
emotional memories
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The hippocampus
Responsible for
Storage of new information in
memory
Comparing sensory information
with what the brain expects
about the world
Enabling us to form spatial
memories for navigating the
environment
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The cerebrum
•Largest brain structure
•Two cerebral hemispheres connected
by a bundle of nerve fibers called the
corpus callosum
•In charge of our higher forms of
thinking
•Surrounded by cerebral cortex, a
collection of several thin layers of cells
(gray matter)
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Lobes of the cerebral
cortex
1. Occipital lobes (visual cortex)
2. Parietal lobes
(somatosensory cortex)
3. Temporal lobes
Memory, perception, emotion, and auditory cortex
Left lobe: Wernicke’s area
4. Frontal lobes
Emotion, planning, creative thinking, initiating, and
motor cortex
Left lobe: Broca’s area
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
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The Two Hemispheres
Nearly all right-handed and the majority of left-handed
individuals process language mainly in the left
hemisphere.
Many researchers believe in left-hemisphere dominance.
Others insist right-hemisphere is important for spatial
visual problem solving, comprehending non-verbal
sounds, and some language abilities.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Where is the Self?
4
•Modern brain scientists explain the mind or
soul in physical terms as a product of the
cerebral cortex.
•Frontal lobes may play a critical role.
•Many still question the relationship between
subjective experience and physical processes
of the brain.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
“His” and “her” brains?
4
Women have relatively larger areas of
the frontal lobe and limbic system,
whereas men have larger parts of the
amygdala and parietal cortex.
There do appear to be sex differences
in lateralization of language.
Males show left hemisphere activation only.
Females show left and right hemisphere activation.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
What do differences
mean for behavior?
4
Supposed differences are stereotypes.
Brain difference does not necessarily
explain behavior or performance.
Sex differences in the brain could be the
result rather than the cause of behavioral
differences.
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