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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Learning
and Conditioning
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Definitions
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Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience
Behaviorism
An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of
observable behavior and the role of the environment as a
determinant of behavior
Conditioning
A kind of learning that involves the association between
environmental stimuli and the organism’s responses
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Classical conditioning
•The process by which a previously neutral
stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a
response through association with a stimulus
that already elicits a similar response
•Pavlov’s Dogs
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
New reflexes from old
Unconditioned
stimulus (US)
Elicits a response in the
absence of learning
Unconditioned
response (UR)
The reflexive response
elicited by a stimulus in the
absence of learning
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
New reflexes from old
Learning occurs when a neutral
stimulus is then regularly paired with
an unconditioned stimulus
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
New reflexes from old
Conditioned stimulus
(CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that
comes to elicit a conditioned
response after being associated
with an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
(CR)
A response that is elicited by the
conditioned stimulus
Occurs after the CS has been
associated with the US
Is usually similar to the UR
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Your turn
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You are visiting a house to see if you want to buy it.
When you step through the front door, you are met
with the smell of oatmeal chocolate chip cookies—
just like your grandmother used to make. Suddenly
you find yourself feeling that this house is a warm
and friendly place. In this scenario, what is the CS?
1.
2.
3.
4.
The smell of oatmeal chocolate chip cookies
The new house
Your grandma
The feeling of warmth and friendliness
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Your turn
9
You are visiting a house to see if you want to buy it.
When you step through the front door, you are met
with the smell of oatmeal chocolate chip cookies—
just like your grandmother used to make. Suddenly
you find yourself feeling that this house is a warm
and friendly place. In this scenario, what is the CS?
1.
2.
3.
4.
The smell of oatmeal chocolate chip cookies
The new house
Your grandma
The feeling of warmth and friendliness
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Principles of classical
conditioning
•Extinction
•Higher-order conditioning
•Stimulus generalization
•Stimulus discrimination
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Extinction
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•The weakening and eventual disappearance of a
learned response
•In classical conditioning, it occurs when the
conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Higher-order conditioning
•A neutral stimulus can become a
conditioned stimulus by being paired
with an existing conditioned stimulus.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Stimulus generalization
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•After conditioning, the tendency to
respond to a stimulus that resembles one
involved in the original conditioning
•In classical conditioning, it occurs when
a stimulus that resembles the CS elicits
the CR.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Stimulus discrimination
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•The tendency to respond differently
to two or more similar stimuli
•In classical conditioning, occurs
when a stimulus similar to the CS
fails to evoke a CR.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
What is actually learned
in classical conditioning?
•For classical conditioning to be most
effective, the stimulus to be
conditioned should precede the
unconditioned stimulus.
•We learn that the first stimulus
predicts the second (Rescorla, 1988).
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Learning to like
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•Where do sentimental feelings come
from?
•Objects have been associated in the
past with positive feelings.
•Advertisers use classical
conditioning to make a product more
appealing.
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Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Learning to fear
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•Research suggests we can learn fear through
association.
•Watson and Raynor conditioned “Little Albert” to be
afraid of white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus
(rats) with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noise).
•Within days, Albert was afraid of rats, and his fear
generalized to other furry objects.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Accounting for taste
•Slugs learned an aversion
to the smell of carrots,
which they normally like,
after the smell of carrots
was paired with a bittertasting chemical.
Ex. Psychologist Martin
Seligman developed an
aversion to béarnaise sauce
after he came down with the
flu following a meal of filet
mignon with béarnaise
sauce.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Reacting to medical
treatments
Some cancer patients
react to waiting rooms
with nausea, because the
waiting room has been
associated with
chemotherapy, which
chemically causes
nausea.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Operant conditioning
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The process by which a response
becomes more or less likely to occur
depending on its consequences
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Radical behaviorism
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•To understand behavior it is necessary to
focus on the external causes of an action and
the action’s consequences.
•To explain behavior, one must look outside
the individual, not inside.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Consequences of behavior
Reinforcement:
strengthens the response
or makes it more likely to
recur
Punishment: weakens a
response or makes it less
likely to recur
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Types of reinforcers
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Primary reinforcers
Inherently reinforcing and typically satisfy a physiological need.
Secondary reinforcers
Stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through
associations with other reinforcers
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Types of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
When a response is followed by the
presentation of or increase in
intensity of a pleasurable stimulus.
Negative reinforcement
When a response is followed by the
removal of or decrease in intensity of
an unpleasant stimulus.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Types of punishers
Primary punishers
Inherently punishing
Secondary punishers
Stimuli that have acquired punishing properties
through associations with other punishers
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Types of punishment
Positive punishment
When an unpleasant consequence
follows a response, making the
response less likely to recur
Negative punishment
When a pleasant consequence is
removed following a response,
making the response less likely to
recur
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Your turn
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Your first time camping in the woods, you are bitten
over 45 times by mosquitoes, resulting in lots of
swollen, itchy bumps on your arms, legs, and back.
You never want to go camping again. What kind of
consequence did you confront on your first
camping experience?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Your turn
9
Your first time camping in the woods, you are bitten
over 45 times by mosquitoes, resulting in lots of
swollen, itchy bumps on your arms, legs, and back.
You never want to go camping again. What kind of
consequence did you confront on your first
camping experience?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
The Skinner box
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Principles of operant
conditioning
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Extinction
In operant conditioning, occurs when a response is no longer followed by
a reinforcer
Stimulus generalization
A response that is triggered by one reinforcer may occur in the presence
of a different, similar reinforcer.
Stimulus discrimination
A response that occurs in response to one reinforcer, and does not occur
as a result of other, similar reinforcers
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Schedules of
reinforcement
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Continuous reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a response is
reinforced (Extinction will be immediate)
Intermittent (or partial) reinforcement (Best choice for
continuation of response)
Only some occurrences of a response are reinforced.
Four possible schedules:
1. Fixed ratio: rewards offered after a set number of responses. (Being paid per item
you sew, factory quotas)
2. Variable ratio: rewards offered after an unpredictable number of responses. (slot
machines, hitting in a batting cage)
3.Fixed interval: rewards offered after a fixed time period. (semester grades, monthly
paychecks)
4.Variable interval: rewards offered after varying time periods. (pop quizzes, arrival
of the mail, fishing)
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Which is correct?
In order for a response to persist after it
was learned, you must use continuous
reinforcement.
A. True
B. False
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Which is correct?
In order for a response to persist after it
was learned, you must use continuous
reinforcement.
A. True
B. False
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Shaping
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To teach complex behaviors, one may need to
reinforce successive approximations of a desired
response.
Instinctive drift - the tendency for an organism to
revert to instinctive behavior
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Skinner
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•Maintained that private internal events – perceptions,
emotions, and thoughts – are as real as any others,
and we can study them by studying our own sensory
experiences
•Insisted, however, that thoughts and feelings cannot
explain behavior
•These components of consciousness are themselves
simply behaviors that occur because of reinforcement
and punishment.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Behavior modification
The application of operant conditioning
techniques
To teach new responses
To reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior
Also called applied behavior analysis
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
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When does punishment work?
•Research supports the idea that the most
important factor in the successful use of
punishment is consistency.
•If punishment is intermittent, it can lead
to unintentional reinforcement during the
times when punishment does not occur.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
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When does punishment fail
•When it is administered
inappropriately or mindlessly
•When the recipient responds with
anxiety, fear, or rage
•When it does not occur
immediately after the behavior it
intends to discourage
•When it conveys little information
•When it unintentionally reinforces
an action
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Which is correct?
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Punishment can deter some young criminals from
repeating their offenses.
A. True
B. False
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Which is correct?
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Punishment can deter some young criminals from
repeating their offenses.
A. True
B. False
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Extrinsic and intrinsic
reinforcers
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Extrinsic reinforcers
Reinforcers not inherently related to the behavior being reinforced
Intrinsic reinforcers
Reinforcers inherently related to the behavior being reinforced
Extrinsic reinforcers may undermine
intrinsic reinforcers.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Latent learning
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Sometimes learning occurs even when it is
not immediately demonstrated.
Rats learned even without showing it.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Social learning
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Social-cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is
learned and maintained.
•Through observation and imitation of others
•Positive consequences
•Cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs
Observational learning involves learning new responses
by observing the behavior of another rather than through
direct experience.
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CHAPTER
Invitation to Psychology, 5e  Carole Wade and Carol Tavris
Media violence
•Meta-analysis shows that
greater exposure to violence is
related to more aggressive
behavior when controlled for
social class, intelligence, and
other factors.
•Other researchers are less
concerned because they
believe that media violence
does not cause most viewers
to become aggressive.
•Aggressive individuals may
be drawn to violent
programming.
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