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CBA Review Protein Synthesis (transcription and translation), Genetics, and Evolution DNA vs. RNA DNA 1. Double stranded 2. Deoxyribose sugar 3. Guanine, cytosine, adenine, thymine 4. (G-C), (A-T) 5. Stays in nucleus RNA 1. Single-stranded 2. Ribose sugar 3. Guanine, cytosine, adenine, uracil 4. (G-C), (A-U) 5. mRNA moves from nucleus to cytoplasm, tRNA and rRNA (ribosomes) stay in cytoplsam. TRANSCRIPTION! mRNA… copies DNA in nucleus takes copied gene to cytoplasm Attaches to RIBOSOME (rRNA) Made up of three letter triplets called CODONS DNA Strand: AGG-GAC-TAT-GAT-AGC Complimentary RNA Strand: UCC-CUG-AUA-CUA-UCG TRANSLATION! tRNA… Reads the mRNA each CODON at a time Has the opposite of the codon, called the ANTI-CODON, which matches using base-pairing rules (A-U), (G-C) Translation happens in the CYTOPLASM within RIBOSOMES. tRNA ANTI-CODON Amino Acids Monomers of proteins Every codon codes for an amino acid DNA Strand: ATA-CGG-ACC-TAA-GAG mRNA Strand: Write on white board Amino Acid Sequence: Write on white board GENETICS! Gene Regulation Mendelian Genetics Principle of Dominance Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses Non-Mendelian Genetics Incomplete Dominance Codominance Polygenic Traits X-Linked Traits Gene Technology Recombinant DNA DNA Fingerprinting Karyotyping Pedigrees Chromosomal Mutations Meiosis Gene Regulation Remember Oxana Malaya, the girl who was raised by dogs When she was born, she was completely normal, mentally and physically She now experiences difficulties learning and with language and lives in assisted living. Why? Gene Regulation The environment influences gene expression. Genes: Expressed = transcription CAN happen Not expressed = transcription CANNOT happen Prokaryotes (Bacteria) LAC Operon – set of genes that make the enzymes that digest lactose No lactose present: genes NOT expressed (Turned “off ”) Lactose present: genes EXPRESSED (turned “on” Gene Regulation Eukaryotes: Use transcription factors More complex process than in prokaryotes Epigenome: the “marker” proteins that turn genes on and off Mendelian Genetics Monohybrid Crosses: Letters on the sides of the Punnett square are GAMETES (Law of Segregation) Dihybrid Crosses: RrYy x RrYy Will always end up with a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio FOIL to find gametes (Law of Independent Assortment) Non-Mendelian Genetics Incomplete Dominance: heterogygotes have “blended” appearance (If RR = Red, and WW = White, then RW = Pink) Codominance: BOTH traits are expressed equally in heterozygotes (COWdominance: if BB = black cow and WW = white cow, then BW = black and white spotted cow) Non-Mendelian Genetics (cont.) X-Linked Traits: Carried on the X-Chromosome Females are XX, males are XY, so males CANNOT be heterozygous for X-linked traits Polygenic Traits: More than one set of alleles for the trait You see a bell-curve distribution of phenotypes with these traits Ex- hair color, height, skin tone, etc Gene Technology Recombinant DNA: genes inserted into PLASMIDS of bacteria to “trick” the bacteria into making the proteins that are desired Ex: Insulin for people with diabetes Gene Technology DNA fingerprinting: Everyone has different DNA fingerprints EXCEPT IDENTICAL TWINS! Used in paternity tests and crime scenes Gene Technology Karyotyping: Used to detect chromosomal abnormalities Can be performed while a woman is pregnant to detect abnormalities in the fetus: amniocentesis NON-DISJUNCTION mutations cause TRISOMIES! Trisomy 21: Down Syndrome Caused by NONDISJUNCTION mutation Pedigrees DARKENED individuals are AFFECTED If you see half-colored circles or squares, the individual is a CARRIER Not all carriers are half-colored. Chromosomal Mutations Meiosis VS Mitosis Meiosis VS Mitosis Meiosis: 2n 1n Diploid cells to haploid cells Makes GAMETES (eggs and sperm) Mitosis: 2n 2n Diploid cells to diploid cells Non-Disjunction Mutations Cause a TRISOMY on a karyotype Chromosomes don’t separate during meiosis Evolution Endosymbiotic Theory Origin of Complex Molecules Evidence of Evolution Fossils Homologous, Vestigial structures Embryology DNA evidence Mechanisms of Evolution Natural selection, mutation, migration (gene flow), genetic drift (bottlenecking, founder-effect) Directional, Disruptive, Stabilizing selection Convergent vs Divergent Evolution Endosymbiotic Theory Mirochondria and Chloroplasts used to be bacteria! Origin of Complex Molecules Oparin & Haldane hypothesized that amino acids could form in the early Earth’s environment Miller & Urey tested it…..and it worked! AMINO ACIDS formed after a week! Iron-Sulfur World Hypothesis Discovery of ecosystems based on chemosynthesis in deep hydrothermal vents offered support Chemosynthesis: making glucose using inorganic molecules instead of sunlight as a catalyst Catalysts in this instance: Iron (Fe) and Sulfur (S) RNA World Hypothesis RNA came before DNA because CATALYTIC RNA is SELF-REPLICATING. Catalytic RNA needs no proteins to aid in the process of replication, unlike DNA Catalytic RNA acts like an enzyme, but it is not RNA = nucleic acid, enzymes = proteins Fossils Older fossils are in lower layers Newer fossils are in top layers When fossils disappear from one layer to another, the organisms must have gone extinct Gradualism vs Punctuated Equilibrium Gradualism TRANSITION FOSSILS Punctuated Equilibrium NO transition fossils Punctuated Equilibrium Homologous Structures Similar because of common ancestry DIVERGENT EVOLUTION Analogous Structures Independent evolution—no common ancestry CONVERGENT EVOLUTION Vestigial Structures Not used in modern species; evidence of ancestry Ex- leg bones in whales, appendix in humans Molecular Evidence More DNA in common = more closely related DNA similarities = Amino Acid similarities Embryology All vertebrates go through similar embryonic stages early in development Tails become backbones Adaptive Radiation Divergent Evolution An ancestral species diversifies into many different species Ex- mammals after dinosaur extinction Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium When no evolution is happening Random mating No environmental pressures Does not exist in real life Convergent vs Divergent CONVERGENT DIVERGENT UNRELATED species RELATED species become adapt to similar environments Produces ANALOGOUS sturctures more different Produces HOMOLOUS structures Types of Natural Selection Cladograms