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9. What evidence led Thorndike to propose the “law of effect”?
 Law of Effect is Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more
likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
 Cat in a puzzle box: Thorndike used a fish reward to entice cats to find their way out of a puzzle box
through a series of maneuvers. The cats’ performance tended to improve with successive trials.
 B.F. Skinner elaborated on Thorndike’s research
10. What is operant conditioning, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?
 Operant Conditioning is associative learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer
or diminished if followed by a punisher.
11. Identify the primary differences between CC and OC.
 CC forms associations between stimuli (a CS and the UCS it signals) It also involves a respondent
behavior-actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus (such as salivating in response to meat
powder and later in response to a tone)
 OC organisms associate their own actions with consequences. Actions followed by reinforcers increase;
those followed by punishers often decrease.
12. Create a table that summarizes the four major schedules of partial reinforcement and their effects on behavior.
Fixed
Variable (unpredictable
produces more consistent
responding)
Ratio
Every so many: reinforcement
After an unpredictable number:
(produces a higher response rate after every nth behavior, such as reinforcement after a random
than interval)
buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay number of behaviors, as when
per product unit produced
playing slot machines or fishing
Interval
Every so often: reinforcement
Unpredictably often:
for a behavior after a fixed time, reinforcement for behavior after
such as discounts on Tuesdays
a random amount of time, as in
checking for social media
responses
13. Are variable or fixed schedules more resistant to extinction? Why?
 Extinction of a reinforced behavior will occur once reinforcement stops. With partial reinforcement
learning is slower, but the behavior is more resistant to extinction.
 Variable ratio is the most resistant to extinction, while fixed-interval is the easiest to extinguish.
Variable schedules are less predictable and encourage behavior—change of luck and get a possible
reward.
14. Compare negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, and punishment.
 Reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens behavior.
i. primary (food, nausea) vs. secondary reinforcers (cash)
ii. + adds a desirable stimulus (pet a dog when it sits on command)
iii. – removes an aversive stimulus (taking an Advil for a headache.)
 Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as spanking) or withdraws something
desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy) in attempt to decrease the frequency of behavior.
i. not to be confused with negative reinforcement