* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Midterm Review
Polyclonal B cell response wikipedia , lookup
Biochemical cascade wikipedia , lookup
Magnesium in biology wikipedia , lookup
Enzyme inhibitor wikipedia , lookup
Mitochondrion wikipedia , lookup
Light-dependent reactions wikipedia , lookup
Signal transduction wikipedia , lookup
Microbial metabolism wikipedia , lookup
NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (H+-translocating) wikipedia , lookup
Fatty acid metabolism wikipedia , lookup
Phosphorylation wikipedia , lookup
Photosynthesis wikipedia , lookup
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide wikipedia , lookup
Biosynthesis wikipedia , lookup
Amino acid synthesis wikipedia , lookup
Adenosine triphosphate wikipedia , lookup
Evolution of metal ions in biological systems wikipedia , lookup
Oxidative phosphorylation wikipedia , lookup
Midterm Review Evolution • What are the 4 observations and 2 inferences that Darwin developed? Evolution • What are the 4 observations and 2 inferences that Darwin developed? – Members of a population vary greatly in their traits – Traits are inherited from parents to offspring – All species are capable of producing more offspring than the environment can support – Many offspring doe not survive – Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals – This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations Evolution • What is the difference between the Founder Effect and the Bottleneck Effect? Evolution Fig. 26-11 Evolution Tuna Leopard TAXA Vertebral column (backbone) 0 1 1 1 1 1 Hinged jaws 0 0 1 1 1 1 Four walking legs 0 0 0 1 1 1 Amniotic (shelled) egg 0 0 0 0 1 1 Hair 0 0 0 0 0 1 (a) Character table From this data, create a phylogenetic tree Fig. 26-11 Evolution Lancelet (outgroup) Lamprey Tuna Vertebral column Salamander Hinged jaws Turtle Four walking legs Amniotic egg Leopard Hair (b) Phylogenetic tree Evolution • What are the 2 Hardy-Weinberg equations? And what does each symbol represent? Evolution • What are the 2 Hardy-Weinberg equations? And what does each symbol represent? – – – – – p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 p+q=1 p = frequency of the dominant allele q = frequency of the recessive allele p2 = frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype – q2 = frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype – 2pq = frequency of the heterozygous genotype Evolution • What are the five conditions necessary for a population to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? Evolution • What are the five conditions necessary for a population to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? – No mutations – Random mating – No natural selection – Extremely large population size – No gene flow Evolution • What are the differences between directional selection, disruptive selection, and stabilizing selection? Fig. 23-13 Original population Original Evolved population population (a) Directional selection Phenotypes (fur color) (b) Disruptive selection (c) Stabilizing selection Evolution • What are the steps to producing the first cells on earth? Evolution • What are the steps to producing the first cells on earth? – Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules – Joining of those small molecules into macromolecules – Packaging molecules into “protobionts” – Formation of self-replication molecules Macromolecules • List the 4 macromolecules, their monomers, polymers, and types of bonds. Macromolecules • List the 4 macromolecules, their monomers, polymers, and types of bonds. – Carbs: monosaccharides, polysaccharides, glycosidic linkage – Lipids: fatty acids and glycerol, triglycerides, ester linkage – Proteins: amino acids, polypeptides, peptide bonds – Nucleic Acids: nucleotides, nucleic aicds, phosphodiester bonds Macromolecules • Describe the basic structure of an amino acid. Macromolecules • Describe the basic structure of an amino acid. Amino group Carboxyl group Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Macromolecules • What are the 4 levels of protein structure and describe them. Fig. 5-21a Primary Structure 1 +H 5 3N Amino end 10 Amino acid subunits 15 20 25 Fig. 5-21c Secondary Structure pleated sheet Examples of amino acid subunits helix Fig. 5-21f Hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals interactions Polypeptide backbone Hydrogen bond Disulfide bridge Ionic bond Fig. 5-21g Polypeptide chain Chains Iron Heme Chains Hemoglobin Collagen Cells • What are the functions of the following cell parts? – Nucleus – Ribosomes – Smooth ER – Rough ER – Golgi Cells • What are the functions of the following cell parts? – Nucleus: contains cell DNA – Ribosomes: make proteins – Smooth ER: makes lipids, stores calcium, detoxification, breaks down carbs – Rough ER: secretes glycoproteins, distributes vesicles – Golgi: makes macromolecules, modifies proteins, packages proteins Cells • Which organelles are part of the endomembrane system and how do they work together? Cells • Which organelles are part of the endomembrane system and how do they work together? – Nuclear envelope – Endoplasmic reticulum – Golgi apparatus – Lysosomes – Vacuoles – Plasma membrane Fig. 6-16-3 Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER cis Golgi trans Golgi Plasma membrane Membrane Transport • Label the parts of the plasma membrane Fig. 7-7 Fibers of extracellular matrix (ECM) Glycoprotein Carbohydrate Glycolipid EXTRACELLULAR SIDE OF MEMBRANE Cholesterol Microfilaments of cytoskeleton Peripheral proteins Integral protein CYTOPLASMIC SIDE OF MEMBRANE Membrane Transport • What is the difference between hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic? Membrane Transport • What is the difference between hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic? – Isotonic solution: Solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasma membrane – Hypertonic solution: Solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water – Hypotonic solution: Solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water Fig. 7-13 Hypotonic solution H2O Isotonic solution H2O H2O Hypertonic solution H2O (a) Animal cell Lysed Normal Shriveled Hypotonic solution H2O Isotonic solution H2O H2O Hypertonic solution H2O (b) Plant cell Turgid (normal) Flaccid Plasmolyzed Fig. 7-UN3 “Cell” 0.03 M sucrose 0.02 M glucose Environment: 0.01 M sucrose 0.01 M glucose 0.01 M fructose Fig. 7-UN4 Water Potential • What is the water potential equation? Water Potential • What is the water potential equation? Water potential equation: ψ = ψS + ψP • Water potential (ψ) = free energy of water • Solute potential (ψS) = solute concentration (osmotic potential) • Pressure potential (ψP) = physical pressure on solution Water Potential • How do you calculate Solute Potential? Water Potential • How do you calculate Solute Potential? ψS = -iCRT • • • • i = ionization constant (# particles made in water) C = molar concentration R = pressure constant (0.0831 liter bars/mole-K) T = temperature in K (273 + °C) • The addition of solute to water lowers the solute potential (more negative) and therefore decreases the water potential. Cell Respiration • What are the 3-4 main steps of Cellular Respiration? Cell Respiration • What are the 3-4 main steps of Cellular Respiration? – Glycolysis – Intermediate Step/Link Reaction – Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle – Oxidative Phosphorylation Fig. 9-6-3 Electrons carried via NADH and FADH2 Electrons carried via NADH Citric acid cycle Glycolysis Pyruvate Glucose Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis Mitochondrion Cytosol ATP ATP ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation Substrate-level phosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation Fig. 9-8 Energy investment phase Glucose 2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP used 4 ATP formed Energy payoff phase 4 ADP + 4 P 2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H+ 2 NADH + 2 H+ 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O Net Glucose 4 ATP formed – 2 ATP used 2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H+ 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O 2 ATP 2 NADH + 2 H+ CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION NAD+ Transport protein 1 Pyruvate NADH + H+ 2 3 CO2 Coenzyme A Acetyl CoA Fig. 9-11 Pyruvate CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH + H+ Acetyl CoA CoA CoA Citric acid cycle FADH2 2 CO2 3 NAD+ 3 NADH FAD + 3 H+ ADP + P i ATP NADH 50 2 e– NAD+ FADH2 2 e– 40 FMN FAD Multiprotein complexes FAD Fe•S Fe•S Q Cyt b 30 Fe•S Cyt c1 IV Cyt c Cyt a Cyt a3 20 10 2 e– (from NADH or FADH2) 0 2 H+ + 1/2 O2 H 2O Cell Respiration • What are the 2 types of anaerobic respiration? – Alcoholic fermentation – Lactic Acid fermentation • In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps, with the first releasing CO2 • Alcohol fermentation by yeast is used in brewing, winemaking, and baking Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced by NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2 • Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and bacteria is used to make cheese and yogurt • Human muscle cells use lactic acid fermentation to generate ATP when O2 is scarce Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Photosynthesis • What are the 2 main steps of Photosynthesis? Photosynthesis • What are the 2 main steps of Photosynthesis? – Light Reactions – Calvin Cycle Fig. 10-5-4 CO2 H2O Light NADP+ ADP + P i Light Reactions Calvin Cycle ATP NADPH Chloroplast O2 [CH2O] (sugar) Fig. 10-13-5 4 Primary acceptor 2 H+ + 1/ O 2 2 H2O e– 2 Primary acceptor e– Pq Cytochrome complex e– e– 3 8 P700 5 Light ATP synthase 6 ATP Pigment molecules PS I NADP+ + H+ NADPH Pc e– P680 PS II Fd NADP+ reductase e– 1 Light 7 Fig. 10-17 STROMA (low H+ concentration) Cytochrome Photosystem I complex Light Photosystem II Light Fd NADP+ reductase 3 NADP+ + H+ 4 H+ NADPH Pq – H2O THYLAKOID SPACE (high H+ concentration) e– e 1 1/ Pc 2 2 O2 +2 H+ 4 H+ To Calvin Cycle Thylakoid membrane STROMA (low H+ concentration) ATP synthase ADP + P i ATP H+ Fig. 10-18-3 Input 3 (Entering one at a time) CO2 Phase 1: Carbon fixation Rubisco 3 P Short-lived intermediate P 6 P 3-Phosphoglycerate 3P P Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) 6 ATP 6 ADP 3 ADP 3 Calvin Cycle 6 P P 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate ATP 6 NADPH Phase 3: Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP) 6 NADP+ 6 Pi P 5 G3P 6 P Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) 1 Output P G3P (a sugar) Glucose and other organic compounds Phase 2: Reduction Thermodynamics • What are the 2 laws of thermodynamics? Thermodynamics • What are the 2 laws of thermodynamics? – First law of thermodynamics: the energy of the universe is constant: – Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed – Second law of thermodynamics: – Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder/randomness) of the universe Thermodynamics • What is the Gibb’s Free Energy equation? Thermodynamics • What is the Gibb’s Free Energy equation? – ∆G = ∆H – T∆S – ∆G = change in free energy – ∆H = change in total energy – ∆S = change in entropy – T = temperature in Kelvin Enzymes • What is the difference between a competitive and noncompetitive inhibitor? Enzymes • What is the difference between a competitive and noncompetitive inhibitor? – Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate – Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective Fig. 8-19 Substrate Active site Competitive inhibitor Enzyme Noncompetitive inhibitor (a) Normal binding (b) Competitive inhibition (c) Noncompetitive inhibition Enzymes • What is end product inhibition? Enzymes • What is end product inhibition? – the end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway – Feedback inhibition (negative feedback) prevents a cell from wasting chemical resources by synthesizing more product than is needed Fig. 8-22 Initial substrate (threonine) Active site available Isoleucine used up by cell Threonine in active site Enzyme 1 (threonine deaminase) Intermediate A Feedback inhibition Isoleucine binds to allosteric site Enzyme 2 Active site of enzyme 1 no longer binds Intermediate B threonine; pathway is Enzyme 3 switched off. Intermediate C Enzyme 4 Intermediate D Enzyme 5 End product (isoleucine)