Download Kye Paradise EDU 511 Summer 2014 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Kye Paradise
EDU 511
Summer 2014
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
CHAPTERS THREE, FOUR AND FIVE:
BEHAVIORISM:
Associative bias: (p. 38) when characteristics of the would-be conditioned stimulus
affects the degree to which conditioning occurs. Associations between certain stimuli
are more likely to be made than are associations between others.
Contingency: (p. 38) a condition when the potential conditioned stimulus occurs when
the unconditioned stimulus is likely to follow.
Extinction: (p.38) when repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus without the
unconditioned stimulus led to successfully weaker and weaker conditioned responses.
Generalization: (p. 39) when learners respond to other stimuli in the same way that they
respond to conditioned stimuli. The more similar a stimulus is to the conditioned stimulus,
the greater the probability of generalization.
Counter conditioning: (p. 43) replacing a conditioned response by replacing the
response with a new, more productive response. This tends to be more effective than
the extinction method.
Operant conditioning: (p. 50) B. F. Skinner’s principle that when a response is followed
by a reinforcer is strengthened, it is more likely to occur again.
Programmed instruction: (p. 104) B. F. Skinner’s technique of teaching students with
frames that progress as the student responds. The process involves active responding,
shaping, immediate reinforcement and individual differences in learning rate.
CAI (Computer-assisted instruction): (p. 105) moves Skinner’s programmed instruction
from a linear program to a branching program, where a student who responds
incorrectly is directed to remedial frames. This is easily accomplish with computerassisted technology.
CHAPTER SIX:
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY AND MODELING:
Modeling in reinforcement, punishment, environment: (p. 113) The environment can
occasionally reinforce or punish modeling in the following ways:
 The observer is reinforced by the model,
 The observer is reinforced by a third person,
 The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences, and
 Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously.
Behaviors learned through modeling: (p. 122)
Behaviors can be learned through both live models and symbolic models they see in
films, on television and in video games.
 academic skills: cognitive modeling, showing what the model does and thinks
about.
 aggression: studies show that aggressive models lead to increased aggression in
children, and nonaggressive models lead to deceased aggression in children.
 interpersonal behaviors: strategies for discussions, how to share opinions, express
agreement or disagreement, forms of altruism, etc. Children are more likely to model
the behaviors rather than what the model says, so models must practice that which
they preach in order to be effective.
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur: (p. 124)
 attention: the learner’s attention must be focused on the modeled behavior.
 retention: the learner must retain the information gathered from the modeling.
Rehearsals and memory codes search as good guides for the learner.
 motor reproduction: the learner must be able to physically reproduce the modeled
behavior. This condition might not be met if the learner experiences physical
immaturity, insufficient strength or a disability.
 motivation: Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
CHAPTER SEVEN:
COGNITIVE THEORIES:
Information processing theory: (p. 154) focuses on how people think or process
information; some ways are computerlike in nature, while others are not.
Constructivism: (p. 154) Learners do not passively acquire information; instead they
actively try to organize it in unique ways, or construct knowledge. Individual
constructivism involves an individual constructing learning separately while social
constructivism involves a group of people working together to create knowledge.
Contextual theories: (p. 155) theories that place more emphasis on the importance of
the physical and social environment, or context, as it affects thinking and learning. This
suggests that learners often think and perform more effectively when they can draw on
a variety of environmental support systems that enable them to make sense of new
situations and help them tackle challenging tasks and problems.
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY:
CHAPTER EIGHT:
memory: (p. 158) the ability to recall previously acquired information. In some
circumstances, the word memory refers to the process of retaining information for a
period of time.
Sensory register: (p. 161) the first component of the dual-store model, this holds
incoming information long enough for it to undergo cognitive processing.
Working memory: (p. 167) the second component of the dual-store model, this is no
longer called short-term memory because it is believed that this is where cognitive
thought takes place. This is where organization, retrieval and maintenance rehearsal
takes place.
Long-term memory: (p. 173) this is the most complex component of the human memory
system, and it deals with connecting new information with prior knowledge. This
component includes declarative knowledge as well as procedural knowledge.
CHAPTER TEN:
Explicit vs. implicit knowledge: (p. 223) Explicit knowledge is knowledge that we can
easily recall and explain, while implicit knowledge is knowledge we can’t consciously
recall or explain but that nevertheless affects our behavior.
encoding: (p. 159, 224) modifying information in some way when storing it. Knowledge
can be encoded in terms of physical characteristics, actions, symbols and meanings,
and different forms of encoding are not mutually exclusive.
Concept learning: (p. 235, 237) A concept is a mental grouping of objects or events
that are similar in some way. Concepts can be concrete or abstract. Certain features
are important for positive instances. Defining features are essential for all positive
instances while correlational features are frequently found but not essential. There are
also irrelevant features and prototypes (a typical example of the product).
Schema/scripts: (p. 243) In contemporary cognitive theory, schema refers to a closely
connected set of ideas (including concepts) related to a specific object or event.
Scripts are event schemas that help us to understand the details of an event even
though the information is not stated. An example of a common script is a trip to the
doctor’s office, in which we know the usual process involved in the visit.
CHAPTER ELEVEN:
Retrieval: (p. 266) bringing stored information to mind. Retrieval is easier when related
pieces of information are stored in close association with one another. Retrieval from
long-term memory may be a process of looking in various small “locations” in memory,
just one location at a time. Retrieval cues can be identity cues (where the answer is
given, as in multiple-choice tests), associate cues (hints related to the information that is
sought) or frames (an organizational structure that systematically guides the search of
long-term memory).
Forgetting: (p. 275) Over time, people recall less and less about the events they’ve
experienced and the information they’ve acquired. Some forms of forgetting are
decay, interference and inhibition, repression, failure to retrieve (at the appropriate
time), construction error, failure to store or consolidate, and infantile amnesia.
CHAPTER TWELVE:
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY:
Schemes: (p. 291) groups of similar actions and thoughts that are used repeatedly in
the environment. Children’s schemes are more behavioral in nature to begin with, but
oner time they become increasingly mental, and even abstract.
Operations: (p. 291) the development of the cognitive structures that govern logical
reasoning.
Assimilation: (p. 292) responding to and interpreting an object or event that is constant
with an already existing scheme.
Accommodation: (p. 292) when children can’t easily respond to a new object or event
using existing schemes, they will either 1) modify an existing scheme, or 2) form an
entirely new scheme to deal with it.
Equilibrium: (p. 292) The process of equilibrium promotes progression toward
increasingly complex forms of thought. Children experience disequilibrium, or mental
discomfort, and work toward gaining mental comfort, or equilibrium.
Stages of cognitive development: (p. 293-299)
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth Until Age 2): Schemes primarily entail perceptions and
behaviors. Understandings of the world are based mainly with their physical
interactions with it.
Preoperational Stage (Age 2 to Age 6 or 7): Many schemes now have a symbolic
quality, because children and talk about and think about things beyond their
immediate experience. Children begin to reason about events, although not always
“logical” by adult standards.
Concrete Operations Stage (Age 6 or 7 until Age 11 or 12): Children acquire
congnitive structures that enable them to reason in logical more sophisticated ways
about concrete, reality-based situations. They also realize that their perspectives are
not necessarily shared by others.
Formal Operations Stage (Age 11 or 12 through Adulthood): Children can now think
about abstract, hypothetical and contrary-to-fact situations. They acquire many
capabilities acquire many capabilities necessary for advanced reasoning.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN:
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY:
Cognitive tools: (p. 315) tools that are at least partly symbolic or mental in nature.
Acquiring these tools greatly enhances children’s thinking abilities.
Internalization: (p. 316) the process through which social activities evolve into internal
mental activities. Over time, children gradually internalize adults’ directions and begin
giving themselves directions.
The zone of proximal development (ZPD): (p. 317) tasks that children can accomplish
only with guidance and support. A child’s ZPD includes learning and problem-solving
abilities that are just beginning to emerge and develop.
Scaffolding: (p. 323) a variety of supportive techniques that can help students
accomplish challenging tasks in instructional contexts.
Cognitive apprenticeship: (p. 324) an apprenticeship that shows novices how experts
typically think about a task or activity.
Ormond, Jeanne Ellis. (2012). Human Learning, 6th ed. Pearson.