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Chapter 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology • • Distinguishes items in a category, when he thinks about different possible forms of transportation— rental car, roommate’s car, bus. Visualizes the book on his desk the night before Understands and produces language as he talks to Susan Works to solve a problem, as he thinks about how to get places while his car is in the shop Makes a decision, when he decides to postpone going to the movies with Susan so he can study • Perceives his environment—seeing people on campus and hearing Susan talking on the phone. Pays attention to one thing after another—the person approaching on his left, what Susan is saying, how much time he has to get to his class Remembers something from the past—that he had told Susan he was going to return her book today The Complexity of Cognition • Cognition involves – – – – – – – Perception Attention Memory Representation of knowledge Language Problem-solving Reasoning and decision-making • All include “hidden” processes of which we may not be aware Some Questions to Consider • How is cognitive psychology relevant to • • • everyday experience? Are there practical applications of cognitive psychology? How is it possible to study the inner workings of the mind when we can’t really see the mind directly? What is the connection between computers and the study of the mind? The First Cognitive Psychologists • Donders (1868) – Mental chronometry • Measuring how long a cognitive process takes – Reaction-time (RT) experiment • Measures interval between stimulus presentation and persons response to stimulus Caption: A modern version of Donders’ (1868) reaction-time experiment: (a) the simple reaction-time task; and (b) the choice reaction-time task. Simple RT task: participant pushes a button quickly after a light appears Choice RT task: participant pushes one button if light is on right side, another if light is on left side Donders reasoned that choice reaction time would be longer than simple reaction time because of the additional time it takes to make the decision! The First Cognitive Psychologists • Donders (1868) – Choice RT – Simple RT = Time to make a decision • Choice RT = 1/10th sec longer than Simple RT • 1/10th sec to make decision The First Cognitive Psychologists • Donders (1868) – Mental responses cannot be measured directly but can be inferred from the participant’s behavior • The main principle of CP: Mental responses can’t be measured directly, but must be inferred from observing behavior. The First Cognitive Psychologists • Ebbinghaus (1885) was interested in determining the nature of memory and forgetting. – Read list of nonsense syllables (DAX, QEH, LUH, and ZIF) aloud many times to determine number of repetitions necessary to repeat list without errors. – He used nonsense syllables so that his memory would not be influenced by the meaning of a particular word. • The First Cognitive Psychologists The number of Ebbinghaus (1885) repetitions necessary to learn the list is noted. Initial viewing Learning the list delays ranging from almost immediately after learning the list to 31 days. The number of repetitions needed to relearn the list is noted The First Cognitive Psychologists • Ebbinghaus (1885) – After some time, he relearned the list • Short intervals = fewer repetitions to relearn – Learned many different lists at many different retention intervals The First Cognitive Psychologists • Ebbinghaus (1885) – Savings = by subtracting the number of trials needed to learn the list after a delay from the number of trials it took to learn the list the first time. The curve indicates that memory drops rapidly for the first 2 days after the initial learning. Caption: Ebbinghaus’s retention curve, determined by the method of savings. (Based on data from Ebbinghaus, 1885.) The First Cognitive Psychologists • Wilhelm Wundt (1879) – First psychology laboratory – University of Leipzig, Germany – RT experiments • The First Cognitive Psychologists Wundt (1897) – Approach Structuralism: experience is determined by combining elements of experience called sensations. His goal was to explain behavior in terms of sensations. • – Method Analytic introspection: participants trained to describe experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli. The aim is to reveal hidden mental processes (e.g. Participants describe their experience of hearing a five-note chord played on the piano) The First Cognitive Psychologists • John Watson noted a problem with this. – Results difficult to verify • Invisible inner mental processes • John Watson proposed a new approach called behaviorism (The Rise of Behaviorism) – Eliminate the mind as a topic of study – rejects introspection as a method – Instead, study directly observable behavior The Rise of Behaviorism • Watson (1920) – “Little Albert” experiment – Classical conditioning of fear – 9-month-old became frightened by a rat after a loud noise was paired with every presentation of the rat – behavior can be analyzed without any reference to the mind. – Examined how pairing one stimulus with another affected behavior Classical Conditioning • Pair a neutral event with an event that • naturally produces some outcome After many pairings, the “neutral” event now also produces the outcome The Rise of Behaviorism • Skinner (1950s) – Interested in determining the relationship between stimuli and response – Operant conditioning • Shape behavior by rewards or punishments • Behavior that is rewarded is more likely to be repeated • Behavior that is punished is less likely to be repeated Caption: Timeline showing early experiments studying the mind in the 1800s and events associated with the rise of behaviorism in the 1900s Studying stimulus-response relationships influenced an entire generation of psychologists and dominated psychology in the United States from the 1940s through the 1960s. The Decline of Behaviorism • A controversy over language acquisition • Skinner (1957) – Argued children learn language through operant conditioning • Children imitate speech they hear • Correct speech is rewarded The Decline of Behaviorism • Chomsky (1959) – Argued children do not only learn language through imitation and reinforcement • Children say things they have never heard and can not be imitating • Children say things that are incorrect and have not been rewarded for – Language must be determined by inborn biological program – Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device The Decline of Behaviorism • Tolman (1938) trained rats to find food in a • four-armed maze Two competing interpretations: – Behaviorism predicts that the rats learned to “turn right to find food” – Tolman believed that the rats had created a cognitive map of the maze and were navigating to a specific arm – Attempts to condition animal behavior did not work The Decline of Behaviorism • Tolman (1938) • What happens when the rats are placed in a • different arm of the maze? The rats navigated to the specific arm where they previously found food – Supported Tolman’s interpretation – Did not support behaviorism interpretation Caption: Maze used by Tolman. (a) Rat initially explores the maze; (b) then learns to turn right to obtain food at B when it starts at A; (c) when placed at C, the rat turns left to reach the food at B. In this experiment, precautions are taken to prevent the rat from knowing where the food is based on cues such as smell. Studying the Mind • To understand complex cognitive behaviors: – Measure observable behavior – Make inferences about underlying cognitive activity – Consider what this behavior says about how the mind works The Cognitive Revolution • Shift from behaviorist’s stimulus-response relationships to an approach that attempts to explain behavior in terms of the mind. • Information-processing approach – A way to study the mind created from insights associated with the digital computer – An approach that traces the sequence of mental operations involved in cognition. some psychologists proposed the then-revolutionary idea that the operation of the mind could also be described as occurring in a number of stages on computers. Caption: (a) Flow diagram for an early computer. (b) Flow diagram for Broadbent’s filter model of attention. The Cognitive Revolution • Early computers (1950s) – Processed information in stages • How much information can the mind absorb? • Attend to just some of the incoming information? The Cognitive Revolution • Cherry (1953) • Dichotic listening – Present message A in left ear – Present message B in right ear – were told to focus their attention on one of the messages (called the attended message) and to ignore the other one (called the unattended message). – they were aware of little of the message being presented to the unattended ear. The Cognitive Revolution • Broadbent (1958) – Flow diagram representing what happens as a person directs attention to one stimulus – Unattended information does not pass through the filter. “detector” records the information that gets through the filter. Researching the Mind • Behavior approach measures relationship between stimuli and behavior • Physiological approach measures relationship between physiology and behavior • Both contribute to our understanding of cognition Researching the Mind – Memory Consolidation • Memory for recent events is fragile • If processing is disrupted, recent memories • can fail to be consolidated New information can interfere with memory consolidation. Researching the Mind – Memory Consolidation • Behavior approach • Muller and Pilzecker (1900) had participants learn two lists of words – Independent variable: • One group learned the second list immediately after the first list • The other group experienced a six-minute delay between learning the lists – Dependent variable: • Memory (recall) for the first list of words immediately presenting the second list to the immediate group interrupted the forming of a stable memory for the first list Researching the Mind – Memory Consolidation • Behavior Approach • Gais et al. (2007) the effect of sleep on memory consolidation – Independent variable: • One group learned a list of words shortly before going to sleep • The other group, many hours before going to sleep – Dependent variable: • Memory (forgetting) for the list of words measured two days later a list of 24 pairs of EnglishGerman vocabulary words Caption: Results of the Gais et al. (2007) experiment in which memory for word pairs was tested for two groups. The sleep group went to sleep shortly after learning a list of word pairs. The awake group stayed awake for quite a while after learning the word pairs. Both groups did get to sleep before testing, so they were equally rested before being tested, but the performance of the sleep group was better. Researching the Mind – Memory Consolidation • Physiological approach Gais et al. (2007) the effect of sleep on memory consolidation • • He measured brain activity first as participants were learning the word pairs (encoding) and again as they were tested two days later. (retrieval) – Measured using brain imaging (fMRI) Results – Found differential brain activity between the two groups Cognitive Science • Interdisciplinary study of the mind • – Psychology – Computer science – Cognitive anthropology – Linguistics – Neuroscience – Philosophy Goal: finding ways to study and understand the inner workings of the mind • • • • • • • • • • • • COGNITIVE/EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MASTER PROGRAMMES IN TURKEY Yeditepe Üniversitesi – Bilişsel Bilimler ODTÜ – Bilişsel Bilimler Boğaziçi Üniversitesi – Bilişsel Bilimler Koç Üniversitesi – Bilişsel Psikoloji Hacettepe Üniversitesi – Genel Psikoloji (öğrenciler aldıkları derslerle ve tez konusu seçimleriyle Bilişsel Psikoloji, Gelişim Psikolojisi, Sosyal Psikoloji ile Endüstri ve Örgüt Psikolojisi olmak üzere dört uzmanlık alanına yönelir) İstanbul Üniversitesi – Deneysel Psikoloji, Sinirbilim Uludağ Üniversitesi – Deneysel Psikoloji Ege Üniversitesi – Deneysel Psikoloji Ege Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enst – Sinirbilim Bilkent Üniversitesi - Bilişsel Psikoloji Ankara Üniversitesi - Sağlık Bilimleri Enst - Sinirbilim Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi – Bilişsel Nöropsikoloji Araş. Gör. Merve Denizci Nazlıgül, Nisan 2015