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Genetic Engineering Notes: Selective Breeding Selective breeding allows only those organisms with __________________ characteristics to produce the next generation. Nearly all domestic _____________ and most ________________ have been produced by ________________________. Hybridization Hybridization is the crossing of ___________________ individuals to bring together the best of __________ organisms. ________________, the individuals produced by such crosses, are often ________________ than either of the parents. (Example: _______________) Inbreeding Inbreeding is the continued breeding of individuals with ___________________ characteristics. Inbreeding helps to ensure that the characteristics that make each breed unique will be _____________________. Example: Serious ________________ problems can result from excessive inbreeding. Breeders increase the genetic ___________________ in a population by inducing _________________. Mutations occur _____________________, but breeders can increase the mutation rate by using ______________ and ______________. Producing New Kinds of Bacteria Introducing ___________________ has allowed scientists to develop hundreds of useful bacterial strains, including bacteria that can ________________________. Producing New Kinds of Plants Mutations in some plant cells produce cells that have double or triple the normal number of ______________________. This condition, known as _____________________, produces new species of plants that are often _____________ and _______________ than their diploid relatives. Polyploidy in animals is usually fatal. Examples: Manipulating DNA Scientists use their knowledge of the structure of DNA and its chemical properties to study and change DNA molecules. Scientists use different techniques to: ______________ DNA from cells ______________ DNA into smaller pieces ______________ the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule make ______________________ of DNA In genetic engineering, biologists make changes in the ________________ of a living organism. DNA Extraction DNA can be extracted from most cells by a simple chemical procedure. The cells are _______________ and the DNA is ______________ from the other cell parts. Cutting DNA Most DNA molecules are too ____________ to be analyzed, so biologists cut them into smaller fragments using ________________________. Each ____________________ cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides. A _________________________ will cut a DNA sequence only if it matches the sequence precisely. Separating DNA In ___________________________, DNA fragments are placed at one end of a porous gel, and an _____________________ is applied to the gel. When the power is turned on, the ___________________-charged DNA molecules move toward the __________________ end of the gel. ___________________________ can be used to compare the genomes of different organisms or different individuals. First, ______________________ cut DNA into __________________. The DNA ______________________ are poured into wells on a gel. An _____________________ is applied to the gel. This moves the DNA fragments across the gel. The _______________ the DNA fragment, the _____________ and ______________ it will move across the gel. Based on _________, the DNA fragments make a pattern of ____________ on the gel. These _______________ can then be compared with other samples of DNA. Reading the Sequence In DNA sequencing, a ____________________ DNA strand is made using a small proportion of fluorescently labeled ____________________. Each time a labeled ________________ is added, it stops the process of ______________________, producing a short color-coded DNA fragment. When the mixture of fragments is separated on a gel, the DNA sequence can be read. Base sequence as “read” from the order of the dye bands on the gel from ______________ to _____________: T G C A C Making Copies ______________________________ (PCR) is a technique that allows biologists to make copies of genes. A biologist adds ___________________ pieces of DNA that are ______________ to portions of the sequence. DNA is ________________ to separate its two strands, then cooled to allow the _________________ to bind to single-stranded DNA. _____________________ starts making copies of the region between the primers. Transformation: During transformation, a cell takes in DNA from ___________ the cell. The external DNA becomes a component of the cell's DNA. Foreign DNA is first joined to a small, circular DNA molecule known as a ________________. _____________________ are found naturally in some _______________ and have been very useful for DNA transfer. The __________________has a _______________________—a gene that makes it possible to distinguish ____________________ that carry the ________________ (and the foreign DNA) from those that don't. If transformation is successful, the _______________________ is integrated into one of the chromosomes of the cell Transgenic Organisms An organism described as transgenic, contains ___________ from other ______________. Transgenic Microorganisms Transgenic ____________ produce important substances useful for health and industry. Transgenic ______________ have been used to produce: _______________ _______________hormone _______________factor Cloning A clone is a member of a population of ___________________________ cells produced from a _________________. In 1997, Ian Wilmut cloned a ________________ called Dolly. What items are required to clone a species?