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Connecting Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis • Living cells require energy from outside sources • Some animals, such as chimpanzees, obtain energy by eating plants, and some animals feed on other organisms that eat plants Light energy ECOSYSTEM • Energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and leaves as heat • Photosynthesis generates O2 and organic molecules, which are used in cellular respiration Photosynthesis in chloroplasts CO2 H2O Organic molecules O2 Cellular respiration in mitochondria • Cells use chemical energy stored in organic molecules to regenerate ATP, which powers work ATP ATP powers most cellular work Heat energy 1 Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP Cellular Respiration • Several processes are central to cellular respiration and related pathways • The breakdown of organic molecules releases energy • Fermentation is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O2 • Aerobic respiration consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP • Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumed as fuel, it is helpful to trace cellular respiration with the sugar glucose Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction • The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic molecules • This released energy is ultimately used to synthesize ATP • Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are called oxidation-reduction reactions, or redox reactions • In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized • In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is reduced (the amount of positive charge is reduced) 2 becomes ________ (_________ electron) becomes ________ (________ electron) Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During Cellular Respiration • During cellular respiration, the fuel (such as glucose) is oxidized, and O2 is reduced becomes ________ becomes ________ 3 The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview • Harvesting of energy from glucose has three stages • Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate) • The citric acid cycle (completes the breakdown of glucose) • Oxidative phosphorylation (accounts for most of the ATP synthesis) • Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration • A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation • For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2 and water by respiration, the cell makes up to 32 molecules of ATP Electrons carried via NADH and FADH2 Electrons carried via NADH Glycolysis Glucose Pyruvate Pyruvate oxidation Citric acid cycle Acetyl CoA Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis MITOCHONDRION CYTOSOL ATP ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation Substrate-level phosphorylation ATP Oxidative phosphorylation 4 BioFlix: Cellular Respiration Right-clickslide/ select”Play” 5 Figure 9.8 Energy Investment Phase Glucose 2 ADP 2 P 2 ATP used Energy Payoff Phase 4 ADP 4 P 2 NAD+ 4 e 4 H+ 4 ATP formed 2 NADH 2 H+ 2 Pyruvate 2 H2O Net Glucose 4 ATP formed 2 ATP used 2 NAD+ 4 e 4 H+ 2 Pyruvate 2 H2O 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 H+ 6 Figure 9.10 MITOCHONDRION CYTOSOL CO2 Coenzyme A 3 1 2 Pyruvate NAD NADH + H Acetyl CoA Transport protein 7 Inputs Outputs Glycolysis 2 Pyruvate 2 Glucose 2 NADH ATP Outputs Inputs 2 Pyruvate 2 Acetyl CoA 2 Oxaloacetate Citric acid cycle 2 ATP 8 NADH 6 CO2 2 FADH2 8 Figure 9.12-8 Acetyl CoA CoA-SH NADH + H NAD 8 Oxaloacetate Malate H2O H2O 1 2 Citrate Citric acid cycle 7 Fumarate 6 FADH2 Isocitrate NAD NADH 3 + H CO2 CoA-SH CoA-SH 5 FAD Succinate Pi GTPGDP Succinyl CoA ADP -Ketoglutarate 4 NAD CO2 NADH + H ATP 9 Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism INTERMEMBRANE SPACE • Electron transfer in the electron transport chain causes proteins to pump H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space H Stator Rotor • H+ then moves back across the membrane, passing through the proton, ATP synthase • ATP synthase uses the exergonic flow of H+ to drive phosphorylation of ATP • This is an example of chemiosmosis, the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work Internal rod H H Catalytic knob H Protein complex of electron carriers H Cyt c Q I ADP + Pi MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX IV • The energy stored in a H+ ATP gradient across a membrane synthase couples the redox reactions of the electron transport chain to ATP synthesis III II FADH2FAD 2 H + 1/2O2 ATP H2O NAD NADH (carrying electrons from food) ADP P i ATP H 1 Electron transport chain Oxidative phosphorylation 2 Chemiosmosis • The H+ gradient is referred to as a proton-motive force, emphasizing its capacity to do work 10 Summary of ATP Production • The electron transport chain accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration • A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle • For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2 and water by respiration, the cell makes up to 32 molecules of ATP Electron shuttles span membrane 2 NADH Glycolysis 2 Pyruvate Glucose MITOCHONDRION 2 NADH or 2 FADH2 2 NADH Pyruvate oxidation 2 Acetyl CoA 2 ATP Maximum per glucose: 6 NADH 2 FADH2 Citric acid cycle Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis 2 ATP about 26 or 28 ATP About 30 or 32 ATP CYTOSOL 11 Glucose CYTOSOL Glycolysis Pyruvate No O2 present: Fermentation O2 present: Aerobic cellular respiration MITOCHONDRION alcohol or lactic acid Citric acid cycle 12 • In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced to NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2 • Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and bacteria is used to make cheese and yogurt • Human muscle cells use lactic acid fermentation to generate ATP when O2 is scarce 2 ADP 2 P Glucose 2 ADP 2 P 2 ATP i Glycolysis 2 ATP i Glycolysis Glucose 2 Pyruvate 2 NAD 2 NADH 2 H 2 NAD 2 CO2 2 NADH 2 H 2 Pyruvate 2 Ethanol (a) Alcohol fermentation 2 Acetaldehyde 2 Lactate (b) Lactic acid fermentation 13 The Versatility of Catabolism • Catabolic pathways funnel electrons from many kinds of organic molecules into cellular respiration • Glycolysis accepts a wide range of carbohydrates Amino acids Sugars Fats Glycerol Fatty acids Glucose • Fats are digested to glycerol (used in glycolysis) and fatty acids (used in generating acetyl CoA) • An oxidized gram of fat produces more than twice as much ATP as an oxidized gram of carbohydrate Carbohydrates Glycolysis • Proteins must be digested to amino acids; amino groups can feed glycolysis or the citric acid cycle • Fatty acids are broken down and yield acetyl CoA Proteins Glyceraldehyde 3- P NH3 Pyruvate Acetyl CoA Citric acid cycle Oxidative phosphorylation 14 Glucose The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis AMP Glycolysis Fructose 6-phosphate • Ancient prokaryotes are thought to have used glycolysis long before there was oxygen in the atmosphere • Very little O2 was available in the atmosphere until about 2.7 billion years ago, so early prokaryotes likely used only glycolysis to generate ATP Stimulates Phosphofructokinase Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Inhibits Inhibits • Glycolysis is a very ancient process Pyruvate Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms ATP Citrate Acetyl CoA • Feedback inhibition is the most common mechanism for control • If ATP concentration begins to drop, respiration speeds up; when there is plenty of ATP, respiration slows down • Control of catabolism is based mainly on regulating the activity of enzymes at strategic points in the catabolic pathway Citric acid cycle Oxidative phosphorylation 15