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Learning Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experiences. Learning is extremely important for both humans and animals in terms of survival, function and adaptation. A century of research on learning on lower animals suggests that principles generated initially from lower animals can also be applied to human beings. Types of Learning 1. Associative Learning a type of learning where an organism makes a connection or association made between two events. Conditioning: a process of learning associations 2. Observational Learning 3. Verbal Learning Classical Conditioning or Pavlovian Theory Classical Conditioning - an organism learns the association between two stimuli Respondent behavior: meaning, behavior occurs automatically and this explains how neutral stimuli bring out INVOLUNTARY RESPONSES Result: organisms learn to anticipate events Major concepts: UCS (unconditioned stimulus) >>stimulus that produces a response without prior learning. UCR (unconditioned response) >> response that is automatically obtained because of the UCS. NS (neutral stimulus) >> a stimulus that cannot elicit any response but becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus. Once associated, it acquires the capacity to produce similar responses. Major concepts: CS (conditioned stimulus) >> a previously neutral stimulus that results in a conditioned response after being associated with an UCS. CR (conditioned response) >> learned response to the CS that occurs after CSUCS link. It Is similar to the UCR. Important Principles: 1. Acquisition >> initial step in learning association. Time interval defines contiguity or connectedness in time & space of a stimulus gap between a particular stimulus to the unconditioned stimulus Contingency predictability of one stimuli occurring because of the presence of another stimuli. Important Principles: 2. Generalization >> if another stimuli is more similar to the original stimulus, it will result to similar responses. We don’t have to relearn everything we sense. 3. Discrimination >> learning to respond to certain stimuli & not to respond to others because generalization is not always beneficial. Important Principles: 4. Extinction >> weakening of the conditioned responses in the absence of unconditioned stimulus. Without continued association between UCS & NS, CS losses power to produce CR 5. Spontaneous Recovery >> a conditioned response can occur after a time delay without further conditioning Implications Classical conditioning can also explain & help humans in several ways such as dealing with phobia, cultivating pleasant emotion, analyzing health problems & consumer behavior. Implication 1. Phobias extreme fear or Irrational fear. Behaviorists claim that fears can be learned through classical conditioning, thus it can be cured through counter conditioning. Counter conditioning weakens a CR by associating fear- provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with fear. 2. Pleasant Emotion >> it is a positive emotion. Classical conditioning is also involve not only to unpleasant emotions like fear. This can explain our favorite songs, place & food. 3. Health Problems >> asthma, headaches, high blood pressure are sometimes due to stress but behaviorist can explain these phenomena by claiming that these certain responses are caused by stimuli that become conditioned to produce physiological responses. 4. Consumer psychology >> advertisers now a days use psychology in determining how consumers think, feel & reason in selecting among variants, brands, products & services. Women are associated with sexual arousal in men. Thus including women alcoholic beverages repeatedly conditions consumers to think that the drink is actually associated with masculinity, sexuality & excitement. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning… - is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior - is distinguished from Pavlovian conditioning in that, operant conditioning deals with the modification of voluntary behavior through the use of consequences, while Pavlovian conditioning deals with the conditioning of behavior so that it occurs under new antecedent conditions Operant Conditioning… - - - A type of associative learning where the consequences of behavior change the chances or probability of the behavior’s occurrence. describes an organisms response to environment. Emphasizes on the ACTIVE and VOLUNTARY nature of an organism to respond. Also called instrumental conditioning American psychologist B.F. Skinner 1938 coined the word “operant” that means: that behavior operates on the environment and vice versa and that voluntary responses or behavior that operates on the environment produces rewards & punishment. Skinner & other behaviorist created the Skinner box (rat and food pellets and levers, also includes electric shocks.) through the skinner box behaviorist were able to assume basic principles such as rewards, reinforcements, punishments. … observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes. When first constrained in the boxes, the cats took a long time to escape. With experience, ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, enabling the cats to escape in less time over successive trials. In his Law of Effect, Thorndike theorized that successful responses, those producing satisfying consequences, were "stamped in" by the experience and thus occurred more frequently. Unsuccessful responses, those producing annoying consequences, were stamped out and subsequently occurred less frequently. In short, some consequences strengthened behavior and some consequences weakened behavior. Reinforcements & Punishments Reinforcement, and punishment, the core ideas of operant conditioning, are either positive (introducing a stimulus to an organism's environment following a response), or negative (removing a stimulus from an organism's environment following a response). Four contexts of operant conditioning: Here the terms "positive" and "negative" are not used in their popular sense, but rather: "positive" refers to addition, and "negative" refers to subtraction. What is added or subtracted may be either reinforcement or punishment. Hence positive punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the addition of punishment (such as spanking or an electric shock), a context that may seem very negative in the lay sense. Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency. Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency. 1. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus (commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever. 2. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed. 3. Positive punishment occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. 4. Negative punishment occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. REINFORCEMENTS • Primary reinforcements: uses reinforces that are innately satisfying. • Secondary reinforcement: it acquires its positive values through experiences that was learned . Schedules of Reinforcements: timetable when a behavior will be reinforced i. FIXED RATIO: reinforces behavior only after a set number of behaviors. (E.g sales commission) RESULT: performance drops right after reinforcement ii. VARIABLE RATIO: behavior is reinforced on an average # of times but on an unpredictable basis. RESULT: produces steady rates of behavior that is most resistant to extinction Schedules of Reinforcements: timetable when a behavior will be reinforced iii. FIXED INTERVAL: reinforcement is determined by the time elapsed since last behavior was rewarded. (E.g. election, salary etc.) RESULT : behavior peaks near the time of reinforcement iv. VARIABLE INTERVAL: behavior is reinforced after an inconsistent amount of time has elapsed. (E.g. surprise quizzes, fishing, etc.) RESULT : behavior is slow and consistent because it is difficult to predict a reward PUNISHMENTS EDWARDS 1999: claimed that punishments shows models of behaviour in handling stress. It also instils fear, rage, and avoidance to children. He says that it only teaches children what NOT TO DO instead of what TO DO. Important Principles - Generalization: give similar responses to similar stimuli - Discrimination: responding only to a stimuli that signal that a behaviour will or will not be reinforced. - Extinction: occurs when a previously reinforced behaviour is no longer reinforced. Implication 1. Applied Behavioral Analysis/ Behavior Modification: divert behavior from destructive to constructive by setting consequences and reinforcing adaptive actions while less adaptive tactics are not. 2. Education: choosing effective reinforcements and individualizing particular reinforcements. Observational Learning also called imitation or modeling developed by Albert Bandura. He didn’t like the trial and error models because learning would be hazardous. He affirmed that we need competent models to learn. Bandura had 4 steps: attention, retention, motor production and reinforcement/ incentive conditions for learning to occur. Verbal Learning is only true for humans. It involves activities that need the use of language like speaking, writing, reading, reciting. Memory plays an important role in learning because, like operant conditioning, it should be an active process. Memorization, like operant conditioning also increase the probability of a behavior in a given signal or appropriate context. Cognitive Factors in Learning Classical and Operant conditioning ignored the possibility that cognitive factors such as memory, thinking, planning, expectations setting to be involved in learning. Cognitive vs. Behavioral: behaviorist do not deny that thinking processes have roles in learning but since such processes can’t be observed directly, they can hold back environmental conditions that dictates behavior 1932 E.C. Tollman’s purposiveness: believed that much of our behavior is goal-directed. He believed it is necessary to understand entire behavioral sequences to understand why they display such behavior. (e.g. why high school students study hard? Is it because they get reinforced or because they want to have good jobs in the future?) Wolfgang Kohler: insight learning: a form of problem solving in which organisms develop a sudden insight or understanding of the problem’s solution. (e.g. stick and box problem) Biological and Cultural Factors in Learning the organism’s body either permits or hinders learning. E.g. flying, breathing underwater, morphing. Preparedness is the term, used by physiologists to indicate that biological/physiological predisposition dictates us on how to learn in a certain way. We cannot learn something we do not experience. Cultural differences also affect how we can discover our potential to do a particular behavior. Learning often requires practice, and certain behaviors are practiced MORE in some cultures than in others.