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BIOPSYCHOLOGY 8e John P.J. Pinel Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Topics PART ONE: Methods of Studying the Nervous System 5.1 Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain 5.2 Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity 5.3 5.4 Invasive Physiological Research Methods Pharmacological Research Methods 5.5 Genetic Engineering PART TWO: Behavioral Research Methods of Biopsychology 5.6 Neuropsychological Testing 5.7 Behavioral Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience 5.8 Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior Ironic case of Professor P Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain • Contrast X-rays – inject something that absorbs X-rays less or more than surrounding tissue • cerebral angiography • X-Ray computed tomography • Computer-assisted X-ray procedure • Provides a 3-D representation of the brain FIGURE 5.2: Computed tomography (CT) uses X-rays to create a CT scan of the brain. Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) • High resolution images • Constructed from measurement of waves that hydrogen atoms emit when activated within a magnetic field Positron emission tomography (PET) • Provides images of brain activity • Scan is an image of levels of radioactivity in various parts of one horizontal level of the brain • A radiolabeled substance is administered prior to the scan Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain • Functional MRI (fMRI) • Provides images of brain structure and activity • As with MRI, uses strong magnetic field • Structure is imaged using waves emitted by hydrogen ions • Function is imaged using signal created from interaction between oxygen and iron in the blood -- BOLD signal • Magnetoencephalography • A measure of neural activity • Measures changes in magnetic fields on the surface of the scalp • Fast temporal resolution Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) • NOT a measure of neural activity • Provides an experimental probe to alter neural activity • TMS applies a brief, strong magnetic field that alters neural activity -- Can either activate or “deactivate” brain structures -- Observe changes in behavior Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity • Scalp electroencephalography (EEG) – Measure of gross electrical activity of the brain – Uses electrodes attached to scalp • Many techniques of EEG – Wave form assessment (e.g., alpha waves) – Event-related potentials (ERPs) – Combination of EEG with MRI Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity FIGURE 5.8: Some typical electroencephalograms and their psychological correlates Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity FIGURE 5.9: The averaging of an auditory evoked potential. Averaging increases the signalto-noise ratio Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity Muscle tension • Electromyography is the technique of measuring the electrical activity of muscles • Electromyogram (EMG) indicates tension of muscles under the skin Eye movement • Electrooculography is the technique of recording eye movements • Electrooculogram (EOG) indicates changes in electrical potential between the front and back of the eyeball Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity FIGURE 5.12: The relation between a raw EMG signal and its integrated version. The subject tensed the muscle beneath the electrodes and then gradually relaxed it. Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity FIGURE 5.13: The typical placement of electrodes around the eye for electrooculography. The two electrooculogram traces were recorded as the subject scanned a circle. Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity Skin Conductance • Measures of electrodermal activity • Techniques include measurement of skin conductance leavel (SCL) and skin conductance response (SCR) Cardiovascular Activity • Often used to link physiological changes with emotional state • Measures include heart rate, blood pressure, and blood volume Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Invasive Physiological Research Methods Stereotaxic surgery • Requires use of sterotaxic atlas and instrument FIGURE 5.14: Stereotaxic surgery: implanting an electrode in the rat amygdala Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Invasive Physiological Research Methods Lesion methods • Bilateral and unilateral lesions • Several procedures each requiring careful interpretation of effects • Aspiration lesions • Radio-frequency lesions • Knife cuts • Cryogenic blockade Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Invasive Physiological Research Methods • Electrical stimulation • Lesioning can be used to remove, damage, or inactivate a structure • Electrical stimulation may be used to “activate” a structure • Stimulation of a structure may have an effect opposite to that seen when the structure is lesioned Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Invasive Physiological Research Methods Invasive electrophysiological recording methods: • Intracellular unit recording – Membrane potential of a neuron • Extracellular unit recording – Firing of a neuron • Multiple-unit recording – Firing of many neurons • Invasive EEG recording Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Invasive Physiological Research Methods Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Pharmacological Research Methods • Routes of drug administration • Fed to subject • Injected through a tube into stomach of subject • Injected hypodermically into the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen, into the fatty tissue beneath the skin, or into a large surface vein of the subject • Selective chemical lesions Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Measuring Chemical Activity of the Brain • 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) technique – Inject animal with radioactive 2-DG and allow it to engage in behavior or interest – Use autoradiography to see where radioactivity accumulates in brain slices • Cerebral dialysis – measures extracellular concentration of specific chemicals in live animals Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Locating Neurotransmitters and Receptors in the Brain • Dye or radioactive labels used to visualize the protein of interest • Immunocytochemistry – based on the binding of labeled proteinspecific antibodies • Immune response – antibodies created that bind and remove/destroy antigens (foreign proteins) • In situ hybridization – uses labeled RNA to locate neurons with complementary mRNA Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Genetic Engineering • Gene knockout techniques • Subjects missing a given gene can provide insight into what the gene controls • Difficult to interpret results – most behavior is controlled by many genes and removing one gene may alter the expression of others, including compensation for missing gene • Antisense drugs block expression of a gene • Gene replacement techniques • Insert pathological human genes in mice Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Fantastic Fluorescence and the Brainbow • Green fluorescent protein (GFP) exhibits bright green florescence when exposed to blue light • Variants of the gene for GFP can express other colors • These GFP genes can be inserted into DNA of neurons—color can then be viewed when targeted neuronal genes are expressed • Brainbow Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Neuropsychological Testing • Time-consuming – only conducted on a small portion of those with brain damage • Assists in diagnosing neural disorders • Serves as a basis for counseling/caring • Provides information on effectiveness and side effects of treatment Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Modern Approaches to Neuropsychological Testing • Single-test • Used to differentiate brain damage from functional (psychological) causes • Standardized-test-battery • Same goal as single-test approach • Halstead-Reitan, for example • Customized-test-battery • Now predominant • Characterizes nature of psychological deficits Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Tests of the Common Neuropsychological Test Battery • Intelligence – Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – WAIS, an IQ test • Memory – Digit span subtest • Language – problems of phonology, syntax, or semantics • Language lateralization – used to identify language-dominant hemisphere – Sodium amytal – anesthetize one hemisphere – Dichotic listening – ear contralateral to dominant hemisphere shows superior hearing ability Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Tests of the Common Neuropsychological Test Battery • Memory – exploring nature of deficits • • • • Short-term, long-term, or both? Anterograde or retrograde? Semantic or episodic? Explicit or implicit? (repetition priming tests) • Language – problems of phonology, syntax, or semantics • Frontal-Lobe Function • Wisconsin Card Sorting Task Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Behavioral Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience • Each complex cognitive process results from the combined activity of simple cognitive processes (constituent cognitive processes) • Each complex cognitive process is mediated by neural activity in a particular area of the brain • Goal is to identify the parts of the brain that mediate various constituent cognitive processes • Paired-image subtraction technique: compare PET or fMRI images during several different cognitive tasks Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior Procedures developed for the investigation of a particular behavioral phenomenon Assessment of Species-common behaviors: • Open-field test •Tests of Aggressive and Defensive Behavior •Tests of Sexual Behavior Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior Traditional Conditioning Paradigms: • Pavlovian conditioning (pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus) •Operant conditioning •Self-stimulation Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior Seminatural Animal Learning Paradigms: • Conditioned Taste Aversion • Radial Arm Maze • Morris Water Maze • Conditioned Defensive Burying Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Watch: Visit to a Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory Watch: Robert Sternberg on Intelligence Note: To view the MyPsychLab assets, please make sure you are connected to the internet and have a browser opened and logged into www.mypsychlab.com. Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Acknowledgments Slide Image Description Image Source template lightning ©istockphoto.com/Soubrette template background texture ©istockphoto.com/Hedda Gjerpen ch05 image Someone whose brain is being studied in a lab ©istockphoto.com/annedde 3 Figure 5.2 Pinel 8e, p. 103 4 PET scan ©istockphoto.com/BanksPhotos someone whose brain is being studied in a lab ©istockphoto.com/annedde 8 Figure 5.8 Pinel 8e, p. 107 9 Figure 5.9 Pinel 8e, p. 108 10 eye ©istockphoto.com/Tyler Stalman 11 Figure 5.12 Pinel 8e, p. 109 12 Figure 5.13 Pinel 8e, p. 110 14 Figure 5.14 Pinel 8e, p. 111 15 Figure 5.15 Pinel 8e, p. 112 15 Figure 5.16 Pinel 8e, p. 113 16 EKG Heartbeat ©istockphoto.com/dan ionut popescu 18 Figure 5.17 Pinel 8e, p. 114 19 pill background ©istockphoto.com/Fotografia Basica 20 hand holding rat ©iStockphoto.com/sidsnapper 21, 28 brain ©istockphoto.com/Stephen Kirklys 22 DNA ©istockphoto.com/Mark Evans 22, 29 white rat ©iStockphoto.com/Elena Butinova 7, 17 Copyright © Pearson Education 2011 Acknowledgments 23 colored smoke ©istockphoto.com/Wolfgang Amri 24, 25 blue sky & clouds ©istockphoto.com/kertlis 24 neuron ©istockphoto.com/ktsimage 26, 27 book ©istockphoto.com/Carmen Martínez Banús 27 Figure 5.23 Pinel 8e, p. 122 30 salivating dog ©istockphoto.com/Jess Wiberg 30 hand ©istockphoto.com/Stas Perov 30 bell ©istockphoto.com/Igor Sandra 30 dog food bowl ©istockphoto.com/Jonas Engström 31 Figure 5.26 Pinel 8e, p. 126 32 laptop ©istockphoto.com/CostinT 32 table and wall ©istockphoto.com/David Clark Copyright © Pearson Education 2011