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CHAPTER 11
INFLUENCING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR AND
MOTIVATION
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter and the case exercises at the end, students should be able to:
1. Explain to the manager why the pay-for-performance incentive plan is not working.
2. Explain to the manager why his or her attempts to empower the employees have been
ineffective.
3. Determine if the job is amenable to job enrichment and explain in detail how to enrich it.
4. Develop a behavior management program for the job in question.
5. Analyze the performance problem and recommend how to solve it.
LECTURE OUTLINE
The Management Challenge
Introduction
You are a Motivation Expert
What Managers Should Know about Individual Behavior
Personality and Behavior
Abilities and Behavior
Self-Concept and Behavior
Perception and Behavior
Attitudes and Behavior
Need-Based Approaches to Motivation
Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Theory
Existence Relatedness Growth (ERG) Theory
Herzberg’s Hygiene-Motivator (Two-Factor) Approach
Needs for Achievement, Power, and Affiliation
Employee Needs in Practice
Process Approaches to Motivation
Adam’s Equity Theory
Locke’s Goal Theory of Motivation
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Learning/Reinforcement Approaches to Motivation
B.F. Skinner and Operant Behavior
Behavior Modification
Motivation in Action: 10 Methods for Motivating Employees
Set Goals
Use Pay-for-Performance
Improve Merit Pay
Use Recognition
Use Positive Reinforcement
Use Behavior Management
Empower Employees
Enrich the Jobs
Use Skill-Based Pay
Provide Lifelong Learning
An Integrating Model: How to Analyze Performance-Motivation Problems
Summary
160
ANNOTATED OUTLINE
NOTES
The Management Challenge
When Gordon Bethune became the CEO of Continental Airlines,
the company was close to bankruptcy.
He also faced a
demoralized workforce due to cost-cutting strategies implemented
during the 1980’s. Bethune knew he was going to need his
employees’ buy-in before implementing any changes, so he
decided to build his entire strategy around his employees, starting
with a new motivation plan.
You Are a Motivation Expert
What Managers Should Know About Individual Behavior
The law of individual differences is a psychological term that
represents the fact that people differ in their personalities, abilities,
self-concept, values, and needs. Psychologists have taken three
main approaches to studying what motivates people. These are
the need-based, process-based, and learning/reinforcementbased approaches.
Personality and Behavior
Personality is the characteristic and distinctive traits of an
individual, and they way these traits interact to help or hinder the
adjustment of the person to other people and situations.
Psychologists today often emphasize the “big five” personality
dimensions as they apply to behavior at work: extraversion,
emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and
openness to experience. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is tool
used to measure personality, particularly in the work setting. The
MBTI classifies people as introverted or extroverted, sensing or
intuitive, thinking or feeling, perceiving or judging.
Figure 11-1
Some Individual
Determinants of Behavior
Figure 11-2
Cattell’s 16 Personality
Factors
Figure 11-3
Four Examples of MBTI
Styles and Some
Corresponding Occupations
Abilities and Behavior
Individual difference in abilities also influence how we behave and
perform. There are several types of abilities: mental, cognitive, or
thinking abilities, mechanical abilities, and psychomotor abilities.
Self-Concept and Behavior
Who we are and how we behave is largely driven by our
perceptions of who we are and how we relate to other people
(self-concept). Self-efficacy is part of self-concept, and affects
how people perform and even whether they try to accomplish a
task.
Perception and Behavior
Our behavior is motivated by our perceptions. Sometimes
perceptions
lead
to
stereotyping,
associating
certain
characteristics with certain socioeconomic classes, but not with
others. Perceptions depend on many things such as personality
and needs, self-efficacy, values, stress, and one’s position.
161
Figure 11-4
Perception Affect How We
“See” the Arches’ Sizes
Attitudes and Behavior
An attitude is a tendency to respond to objects, people, or events
in either a positive or negative way. Job satisfaction is one of the
most familiar examples of attitudes at work.
Need-Based Approaches to Motivation
Need-based approaches to motivating individuals focus on the
role of needs or motivational dispositions in driving people to do
what they do.
Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Theory
Maslow argued that people have five increasingly higher-level
needs: physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, and selfactualization. Maslow’s theory states that people become
motivated to satisfy the lower-order needs (physiological, safety,
social), and then, in sequence, each of the higher-order needs
(self-esteem, self-actualization).
Figure 11-5
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Existence Relatedness Growth (ERG) Theory
Alderfer focuses on three needs: existence, relatedness, and
growth. Existence needs are similar to Maslow’s physiological
needs, and to the physical components of Maslow’s security
needs. Relatedness needs are those that require interpersonal
interaction to satisfy the needs for things like prestige and
esteem from others. Growth needs are similar to Maslow’s
needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.
Herzberg’s Hygiene-Motivator (Two-Factor) Approach
Herzberg’s Hygiene-Motivator theory divides Maslow’s Hierarchy
into a lower-level and a higher-level set of needs, and suggests
that the best way to provide motivation for an employee is to offer
to satisfy the person’s higher-order needs, ego and selfactualization. Herzberg said that lower-order needs, or hygiene
factors, are different from higher-order needs, or motivators. He
maintains that adding more hygiene factors to the job is a very
bad way to motivate because lower-order needs are quickly
satisfied.
Needs for Achievement, Power, and Affiliation
McClelland and Atkinson agree with Herzberg that higher-level
needs are most important at work. They believe the needs for
affiliation, power, and achievement are most important. They use
the Thematic Apperception Test to identify a person’s needs for
achievement, power, and affiliation. People with a high need for
achievement strive for success, are highly motivated to
accomplish a challenging task or goal, prefer tasks that have a
reasonable chance for success, and avoid tasks that are either too
easy or too difficult. People with a high need for power enjoy roles
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Figure 11-6
Summary of Herzberg’s
Motivator-Hygiene Findings
Figure 11-7
What is Happening Here?
requiring persuasion. People with a strong need for affiliation are
highly motivated to maintain strong, warm relationships.
Employee Needs in Practice
Because everyone is different, you must apply your knowledge of
human motives and needs to determine which needs motivate
different individuals.
Process Approaches to Motivation
Process approaches to motivating employees explain motivation
in terms of the decision-making process through which motivation
takes place.
Adam’s Equity Theory
Adams’s equity theory assumes that people have a need for
fairness at work, and therefore, value and seek it. People are
motivated to maintain a balance between what they perceive as
their inputs or contributions and their rewards as compared to
others. This theory seems to work when people feel they are
underpaid, but inequity due to overpayment does not seem to
have the positive effects on either quantity or quality that Adams’s
equity theory would predict.
Locke’s Goal Theory of Motivation
Goal theory states that when a person decides to pursue a goal,
the person regulates his/her behavior to try to ensure the goals
are reached. Goals provide the mechanism through which
unsatisfied needs are translated into action. Research has found
that people who are assigned or who adopt difficult and specific
goals outperform people who are simply told to “do their best.”
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory states that a person’s motivation to exert a
certain level of effort is a function of three things: expectancy (E),
instrumentality (I), and valance (V). Motivation = E x I x V. “E” is
the person’s expectancy that his or her effort will lead to
performance, “I” represents the perceived relationship between
successful performance and obtaining the reward, and “V” refers
to the perceived value the person attaches to the reward.
Learning/Reinforcement Approaches to Motivation
Learning/reinforcement approaches to motivation focus on how
people’s behavior is molded by the consequences or results of
their actions. Learning is a relatively permanent change in a
person that occurs as a result of experiences. Skinner developed
operant behavior theory where the main question is how to
strengthen the association between the contingent reward and the
operant behavior.
163
Figure 11-8
How a Perceived Inequity
Can Affect Performance
B.F. Skinner and Operant Behavior
Psychologist B.F. Skinner’s findings provide the foundation for
much of what is known about learning. Operant behavior is a
behavior that appears to operate on or have an influence on the
subject’s environment. The process of “teaching” the operant
behavior is operant conditioning.
Behavior Modification
Behavior modification means changing or modifying behavior
through the use of contingent rewards or punishment. It is based
on two principles: behavior that appears to lead to a positive
consequence tends to be repeated, whereas behavior that
appears to lead to a negative consequence tends not to be
repeated. By providing the properly scheduled rewards, it is
possible to get a person to learn to change his or her behavior.
Motivation in Action: 10 Methods for Motivating Employees
Set Goals
Manager’s first option for motivating employees is to ensure that
the employee has a doable goal that he or she agrees with.
Use Pay for Performance
Pay for performance refers to any compensation method that ties
pay to the quantity or quality of work the person produces.
Variable pay plans are pay for performance plans that put a
portion of the employee’s pay at risk, in return for the opportunity
to earn additional pay. Gainsharing plans are group incentive
plans that engage many or all employees in a common effort to
achieve productivity goals. Stock options are rights to purchase
company stock at a discount some time in the future.
Management in Action
Continental’s Pay-for-Performance Plans
Improve Merit Pay
A merit raise is a salary increase, usually permanent, that is based
on the employee’s individual performance. It is a continuing
increment rather than a single payment like a bonus. Relying
heavily on merit rewards can be a problem because the
reinforcement benefits of merit pay are usually only determined
once per year. The solution to this problem is to apply merit
raises more intelligently. First, clarify performance standards
before the measurement period begins. Second, institute a
performance appraisal system that you can use to systematically
and accurately evaluate performance. Third, train all supervisors
to award merit pay based on merit rather then across the board.
Fourth, conduct these awards allocations biannually.
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Table 11-1
The Motivational
Underpinnings of 10
Motivation Methods
Checklist 11.1
Setting Effective Goals
Checklist 11.2
How to Implement an
Incentive Plan
Use Recognition
Some employees highly value day-to-day recognition from their
supervisors, peers and team members because it is important for
their work to be appreciated by others. Recognition helps satisfy
the need people have to achieve and be recognized for their
achievement.
Management in Action
Saying Thank You
Use Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement programs rely on operant conditioning
principles to supply positive reinforcement and change behavior.
Experts claim it is better to focus on improving desirable behaviors
rather than on decreasing undesirable ones. There are a variety
of consequences including social consequences (e.g., peer
approval or praise from the boss), intrinsic consequences (e.g.,
the enjoyment the person gets from accomplishing challenging
tasks), or tangible consequences (e.g., bonuses or merit raises).
Figure 11-9
Positive Reinforcement
Rewards
Table 11-2
Order of Importance of
Various Job Factors
Managing at the Speed of Thought
Going Online with Incentives
Use Behavior Management
Managers applying behavior modification at work must address
two basic issues: the type of reinforcement, and the schedule of
reinforcement.
Types of reinforcement include: positive
reinforcement,
extinction,
negative
reinforcement,
and
punishment.
Research shows that the fastest way to get
someone to learn is to reinforce the desired behavior every time it
occurs. This is continuous reinforcement. Variable reinforcement
is when you don’t reinforce the desired behavior each time it
occurs, but every few times, around some average number of
times. The way to motivate the right behavior is to identify the
desired behaviors and then carefully reinforce them. This process
involves four steps: pinpoint behavior, record, change
consequences, and evaluate.
Empower Employees
Empowerment means giving employees the authority, tools, and
information they need to do their jobs with greater autonomy, as
well as the self-confidence to perform new jobs effectively.
Empowerment boosts employees’ feelings of self-efficacy and
enables them to use their potential more fully.
Enrich the Jobs
Job enrichment means building motivators like opportunities for
achievement into the job by making it more interesting and
challenging. Job enrichment may be implemented by forming
natural work groups, combining tasks, establishing client
relationships, vertically loading the job, and having open feedback
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Figure 11-10
Options for Modifying
Behavior with Reinforcement
Figure 11-11
Performance Improvement
Project Worksheet
Table 11-3
Practical Suggestions for
Empowering Others
Figure 11-12
A Job Enrichment Evaluation
Form
channels. Job design refers to the number and nature of activities
in a job. The key issue is whether jobs should be more
specialized or more enriched and nonroutine. Job design has
been implemented in several ways. Job enlargement assigns
workers to additional same-level tasks to increase the number of
tasks they have to perform. Job rotation systematically moves
workers from job to job.
Figure 11-13
Sample of Saturn’s Work
Team Functions
Use Skill-Based Pay
With skill-based pay, employees are paid for the range, depth, and
types of skills and knowledge they are capable of using rather
than for the job they currently hold. Skill-based pay is consistent
with motivation theory because people have a self-concept in
which they seek to fulfill their potential. The system also appeals
to the employee’s sense of self-efficacy because the reward is a
formal and concrete recognition that the person can do the more
challenging job well.
Provide Lifelong Learning
Lifelong learning can be used to deal with problems of downsizing
and employee commitment, and to counterbalance their negative
effects. It provides extensive continuing training and education,
from basic remedial skills to advanced decision-making
techniques, throughout the employees’ careers, which provide
employees the opportunity to boost their self-efficacy and selfactualization.
An Integrating Model: How to Analyze PerformanceMotivation Problems
Inadequate performance may have three main sources: either
the person does not know what to do in terms of his or her
goals; or could not do the job if he or she wanted to; or is not
motivated to the job.
Figure 11-14
How to Analyze
Performance-Motivation
Problems
SUMMARY
1. Motivation is the intensity of the person’s desire to engage in some activity. Need-based
approaches to motivating employees—such as those of Maslow and Herzberg—emphasize the
role played by motivational dispositions or needs, such as the need for achievement and for
self-actualization.
2. An employee’s thought process also influences motivation. Thus, people seek equity in their
inputs and rewards. Having decided to pursue a goal, they regulate their behavior to try to
ensure that they reach that goal. Their expectations—that effort will lead to performance, that
performance will lead to reward, and that the reward is valuable enough to pursue in the first
place—also influence motivation.
3. Behavior modification means changing or modifying behavior through the use of contingent
rewards or punishment. It assumes, for instance, that behavior that appears to lead to a positive
consequence or reward tends to be repeated, whereas behavior that leads to a negative
consequence or punishment tends not to be repeated.
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4. Methods based on motivational approaches like Maslow’s theory and behavior modification
include pay for performance, spot awards, merit raises, empowerment, goal setting, positive
reinforcement, and lifelong learning.
KEY TERMS
motivation 283
law of individual differences 284
personality 284
authoritarian personality 284
Machiavellian personality 285
self-concept 286
self-efficacy 286
perceptions 286
stereotyping 287
attitude 287
job satisfaction 287
motive 288
motivational dispositions or needs 288
aroused motive 288
equity theory 293
goal theory 294
expectancy 295
instrumentality 295
valence 295
learning 295
operant behavior 296
contingent reward 296
behavior modification 296
pay for performance 297
variable pay plan 297
gainsharing plan 298
merit raise 299
spot award 301
positive reinforcement 302
extinction 302
negative reinforcement 302
punishment 302
empowerment 305
job enrichment 306
job design 308
job enlargement 308
job rotation 309
lifelong learning 309
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