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We use the term classical conditioning to describe one type of associative learning in
which there is no contingency between response and reinforcer. This situation resembles
most closely the experiment from Pavlov in the 1920s, where he trained his dogs to
associate a bell ring with a food-reward (Ryle 1995). In such experiments, the subject
initially shows weak or no response to a conditioned stimulus (CS, e.g. the bell), but a
measurable unconditioned response (UCR, e.g. saliva production) to an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS, e.g. food). In the course of the training, the CS is repeatedly presented
together with the UCS; eventually the subject forms an association between the US and
the CS. In a subsequent test-phase, the subject will show the conditioned response (CR,
e.g. saliva production) to the CS alone, if such an association has been established and
memorized. Such Pavlovian conditioning is opposed to instrumental or operant, where
producing a CR controls the UCS presentations (Ryle 1995). Therefore, classical
conditioning involves learning by association - where you simply learn by associating
two events that often occur together.
Conditioning, in general occurs more rapidly when the conditioned stimulus is unfamiliar
rather than familiar. High order conditioning is when a CS can be used to produce a
response from another neutral stimulus (can evoke CS). There are a couple of different
orders or levels. Taking Pavlov's dogs as an example (Ryle 1995), where light is paired
with food. The food is a US since it produces a response without any prior learning.
Then, when food is paired with a neutral stimulus (light) it becomes a Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) - the dog begins to respond (salivate) to the light without the presentation
of the food. One of the principles of classical conditioning is extinction. If a CS is
repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the CR will disappear. In
Pavlov's case, if a dog learns to associate the sound of a bell with food and then the bell is
rung repeatedly but if no food appears the dog will soon stop salivating to the bell.
Another principle to classical conditioning is the spontaneous recovery -- supposing that
a response is classically conditioned then extinguished (Millin " Riccio 2002). If a few
hours or days later, the CS is presented again, the CR will probably reappear. As
spontaneous recovery is a term used for this temporary return of an extinguished response
after a delay. Thus, the elimination of a conditioned response usually requires more than
one extinction lesson. Pavlov's dog who was conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell
of one tone may well salivate to a similar sounding bell or a buzzer. Stimulus
generalization is the extension of the conditioned response from the original stimulus to
similar stimuli. The conditioned response to a similar stimulus is not as strong as the
response to the original stimulus; the less similar the weaker the response (Millin " Riccio
2002). An animal or person can be taught to 'choose' between stimuli, that is to
discriminate stimuli. For example, is a dog is shown a red circle every time he is fed, then
he will salivate at the sight of the red circle alone. However, the dog will usually
generalize this response so that they may respond to circles of other colors. If we only
feed the dog when it sees a red circle but not an orange one, then it will soon learn to
respond to red but not orange. The dog would have learnt to discriminate between the two
colors.
Relating this to humans, we discriminate consistently, relying on everyday life, such as
knowing someone's voice. John Watson and Rainer conditioned a baby (Albert) to be
afraid of a white rabbit by showing Albert the rabbit and then slamming two metal pipes
together behind Albert's head (Howard 2001). The pipes produced a very loud, sudden
noise that frightened Albert and made him cry. Watson did this several times (multiple
trials) until Albert was afraid of the rabbit. Previously he would pet the rabbit and play
with it. After conditioning, the sight of the rabbit made Albert scream -- then what
Watson found was that Albert began to show similar terrified behaviors to Watson's face.
What Watson realized was that Albert was responding to the white beard Watson had at
the time (Howard 2001). Thus, the fear evoked by the white, furry, rabbit had generalized
to other white, furry things, like Watson's beard. Behaviorism overall is a good scientific
theory. It is simple and parsimonious, with the approach of 'cause-and-effect' idea.
Therefore, it is not necessary to invent hidden processes of learning (e.g.. Freud) to
explain why behavior happens. The behaviorists believed that behavior is caused by
environmental events (stimuli, reinforcers). With this idea, it cannot be controlled.
Behaviorism is deterministic, as we do not control our own actions, and so therefore
cannot be responsible for them. However, it becomes possible for others to control our
behavior by manipulation of environmental events (Vancouver 2001). Behaviorism
assumes that human behavior should be studied using the same methods applied in the
physical sciences - that assuming psychology should restrict itself to studying only those
things that can be studied directly. In this way, it means that anything that cannot be
observed cannot be studied and that w cannot fully explain human behavior and the
complications behind it. Williams (2002) added that although stimuli, response and
reinforcement are essential in behaviorist explanation of behavior, they are never
observed directly. Although we can readily observe events in the environment, we have
no way of knowing if they act as the stimulus for given response nor indeed whether they
are acting as a reinforcer.
Similarly, we have no way of knowing whether a particular response has been caused by
a given stimulus. The notion of reinforcement poses considerable conceptual problems
when we apply it to an explanation of human behavior. If reinforcing serves to strengthen
the bond between stimulus and response, then it supposes that whatever we do we do it
because it brings some pleasant consequence. Applying this to human behavior, i.e.
altruism/other aspects of self-sacrifice, then behavior theory might suggest that somehow
this behaviorism are in fact producing pleasant consequences for the person manipulating
them (Williams 2002). This theory can explain some of social behavior and relationships
if that is the belief and also its causes us to review our previous acceptance that some
people perform act for no personal gain. To a behaviorist, all relationships must provide
people with the opportunity of obtaining pleasant outcomes for themselves. There are
implications of adopting the assumption about cross- species similarity. Williams (1995)
pointed out that reducing experiences e.g. 'loving behaviors' -behaviorists might argue
that all animals that demonstrate i.e. Parental care, do so for the same biological and
environmental reasons. Human's 'loving behaviors' such as parental behavior towards
children do not leave the same meaning that we thought they did, but are a product of our
biology and our conditioning.
Learning theorists see abnormal behavior as being caused by inappropriate conditioning
e.g. rewarding unwanted behavior, or forming associations between stimuli and responses
which are inappropriate e.g. spiders and fear (Vancouver 2001). There are several types
of behavior therapy: Systematic Desensitization (S.D) involves presenting the feared
stimulus in a controlled way in increasingly threatening forms, starting off with the very
mild, i.e., having a small picture of a spider, to gradually to having a spider on your hand.
It can also be done using imagination instead of actually physically present objects.
Implosive therapy or flooding works in two ways: Firstly exhaustion so the anxiety level
goes down and then the fact the client cannot make the usual avoidance response. Wolpe
forced a girl with a fear of cars to drive around with him for 4 hours. This method turned
out to be very effective with agoraphobics.
Aversion therapy is often used on alcoholics and drug abusers, where therapists used
emetic drugs such as antabuse or apomorphine (Howard 2001). The pairing of alcohol
and sickness became associated so that there becomes an aversion to the alcohol. The
emetic by itself has no effect. Operant conditioning can be defined as a type of learning
in which voluntary (controllable, non-reflexive) behavior if it is strengthened or
weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced). Thorndike introduced the law of effect, in
which a response that is followed by pleasant consequences becomes more probable and
a response that is followed by unfavorable consequences becomes less probable. Skinner
based his work on Thorndike's Law of Effect (Howard 2001). He developed machines for
operant conditioning, which are named "Skinner boxes." Rats and pigeons are most often
used. In one experiment, when he placed a rat in a Skinner box, it had to press a lever to
receive food, and thus obtain reinforcement in the form of food. The rat will then press
the lever more often and this has become a conditioned response. Behavior which is
reinforced tends to be repeated. Behavior, which is not reinforced, tends to diminish.
Punishment is anything that decreases the probability that the event proceeding will occur
again. Therefore, punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. The main point to
punishment is that all reinforcement increases a behavior, and all punishment decreases
it. Skinner's work has revealed that positive reinforcement (e.g. food, warmth, drink) is
far more effective than the punishment in regulating behavior. Punishment has its
problems therefore, as both punishment and negative reinforcement may take the subject
hostile, fearful and anxious.
These emotional side-effects may then generalize to the entire situation in which
punishment occurs; the location, the person administering the punishment, the
circumstances may all elicit anxious, fearful and angry responses through classical
conditioning. This can create more problems than it solves. Punishment also indicates
that a particular response is wrong, and does not indicate what action should be done
correctly (Howard 2001). A young toddler could still be clueless about how to use the
potty, and still be smacked for messing himself. Adding to this, it can be in human nature
to overreact to a response, such as shouting, physical violence. The recipient may see that
the punishment would still not have its clarity to why the response was wrong.
Punishment often has the opposite effect of that desired because it may involve a
powerful reward in the form of attention. This is a particular problem in the classroom, as
some children misbehave in order to receive extra attention from the teacher, rather than
from the quieter students who behave appropriately in a classroom. Social learning theory
is about learning by observation and imitation of others and by imagining what would
happen if that behavior were imitated (Ryle 1995). Bandura formulated social Learning
Theory. Unlike Watson, Skinner and any other behaviorists, social learning theorists
concentrate mainly on human learning, especially the acquisition of social and moral
behavior. It is not that people act and copy everyone they see or every act they witness.
Bandura has laid down the specific circumstances under which imitation occurs (Ryle
1995).
Unlike the behaviorists, there is no scientific approach of the 'cause and effect' of
learning, it is by learning through imitation and what motivates us would be the attraction
of success, such as our media heroes or heroines, the same-sex parents and same-sex
peers. The models that individuals imitate are likely to be attractive, successful, high
status people, people who are similar to ourselves and with whom we are familiar. The
social learning theorists take account of the cognitive aspects of learning. The emphasis
on cognition is shown in other aspects of the theory. Bandura points out, that as children
grow older they begin to guide their own behavior rather than using others for guidance
and they begin to reward and punish themselves (Ryle 1995). Children can also start
believing on their characteristics and own abilities. Low expectations affect the way an
individuals approach a task and this in turn affects performance.
References
Abramson, Charles I. (2002). Exploratory studies of classical conditioning of the
preoral cavity in harnessed carpenter ants ( Camponotus pennsylvanicus).
Psychological Reports Vol 90, 1037-1050.
Owen Howard, Matthew. (2001). Pharmacological aversion treatment of alcohol
dependence. I. production and prediction of conditioned alcohol aversion.
American Journal of Drug " Alcohol Abuse Vol 27, 561-585.
Millin, Paula M. " Riccio, David C. (2002). Spontaneous recovery of tolerance to the
analgesic effect of morphine. Physiology " Behavior Vol 75, 465-471.
Ryle, Anthony. (1995, July). Cognitive Analytic Therapy: Developments in Theory and
Practice. Psychological Science. 114-115.
Vancouver, Jeffrey B. (2001). The changing signs in the relationships among
self-efficacy, personal goals, and performance. Journal of Applied
Psychology Vol 86, 110-119.
Williams, Nathan Lea. (2002). The cognitive interactional model of appraisal and
coping: Implications for anxiety and depression. The Sciences " Engineering
Vol 63, 555-565.
Keywords:
term classical conditioning describe type associative learning which there contingency
between response reinforcer this situation resembles most closely experiment from
pavlov where trained dogs associate bell ring with food reward ryle such experiments
subject initially shows weak response conditioned stimulus bell measurable
unconditioned response saliva production unconditioned stimulus food course training
repeatedly presented together with eventually subject forms association between
subsequent test phase subject will show conditioned saliva production alone such
association been established memorized such pavlovian conditioning opposed
instrumental operant where producing controls presentations ryle therefore classical
conditioning involves learning association where simply learn associating events that
often occur together general occurs more rapidly when conditioned stimulus unfamiliar
rather than familiar high order when used produce from another neutral evoke there
couple different orders levels taking pavlov dogs example ryle light paired with food
since produces without prior learning then when paired neutral light becomes begins
respond salivate light without presentation principles classical extinction repeatedly
presented without unconditioned will disappear pavlov case learns associate sound bell
then rung repeatedly appears will soon stop salivating another principle spontaneous
recovery supposing that classically then extinguished millin riccio hours days later
presented again probably reappear spontaneous recovery term used this temporary return
extinguished after delay thus elimination usually requires more than extinction lesson
salivate sound tone well salivate similar sounding buzzer generalization extension from
original similar stimuli similar strong original less weaker millin riccio animal person
taught choose between stimuli that discriminate stimuli example shown circle every time
sight circle alone however usually generalize this they respond circles other colors only
feed sees circle orange soon learn respond orange would have learnt discriminate colors
relating humans discriminate consistently relying everyday life knowing someone voice
john watson rainer baby albert afraid white rabbit showing albert rabbit slamming metal
pipes together behind albert head howard pipes produced very loud sudden noise
frightened made watson several times multiple trials until afraid rabbit previously would
play after sight made scream what watson found began show terrified behaviors face
what realized responding white beard time howard thus fear evoked white furry
generalized other furry things like beard behaviorism overall good scientific theory
simple parsimonious approach cause effect idea therefore necessary invent hidden
processes freud explain behavior happens behaviorists believed behavior caused
environmental events reinforcers idea cannot controlled behaviorism deterministic
control actions therefore cannot responsible them however becomes possible others
control behavior manipulation environmental events vancouver behaviorism assumes
human should studied using same methods applied physical sciences assuming
psychology should restrict itself studying only those things studied directly means
anything cannot observed studied fully explain human complications behind williams
added although reinforcement essential behaviorist explanation they never observed
directly although readily observe environment have knowing they given indeed whether
acting reinforcer similarly have knowing whether particular been caused given notion
reinforcement poses considerable conceptual problems apply explanation human
reinforcing serves strengthen bond supposes whatever because brings some pleasant
consequence applying altruism other aspects self sacrifice theory might suggest somehow
fact producing pleasant consequences person manipulating them williams theory explain
some social relationships belief also causes review previous acceptance some people
perform personal gain behaviorist relationships must provide people opportunity
obtaining pleasant outcomes themselves there implications adopting assumption about
cross species similarity williams pointed reducing experiences loving behaviors
behaviorists might argue animals demonstrate parental care same biological
environmental reasons loving behaviors parental towards children leave same meaning
thought product biology theorists abnormal being caused inappropriate rewarding
unwanted forming associations responses which inappropriate spiders fear vancouver
several types therapy systematic desensitization involves presenting feared controlled
increasingly threatening forms starting very mild having small picture spider gradually
having spider your hand also done using imagination instead actually physically present
objects implosive therapy flooding works ways firstly exhaustion anxiety level goes
down fact client make usual avoidance wolpe forced girl fear cars drive around hours
method turned very effective agoraphobics aversion therapy often used alcoholics drug
abusers therapists emetic drugs antabuse apomorphine howard pairing alcohol sickness
became associated becomes aversion alcohol emetic itself effect operant defined type
which voluntary controllable reflexive strengthened weakened punished reinforced
thorndike introduced effect followed consequences more probable followed unfavorable
consequences less probable skinner based work thorndike developed machines operant
named skinner boxes rats pigeons most often experiment placed skinner press lever
receive thus obtain reinforcement form press lever become reinforced tends repeated
reinforced tends diminish punishment anything decreases probability event proceeding
occur again punishment opposite main point punishment increases decreases work
revealed positive warmth drink effective than regulating problems both negative take
hostile fearful anxious these emotional side effects generalize entire situation occurs
location person administering circumstances elicit anxious fearful angry responses
through create problems solves also indicates particular wrong does indicate what action
should done correctly young toddler could still clueless about potty still smacked messing
himself adding nature overreact shouting physical violence recipient would still clarity
wrong opposite desired because involve powerful reward form attention particular
problem classroom children misbehave order receive extra attention teacher rather quieter
students behave appropriately classroom social about observation imitation others
imagining happen were imitated bandura formulated social unlike behaviorists theorists
concentrate mainly especially acquisition moral people copy everyone every witness
bandura laid down specific circumstances under imitation occurs unlike scientific
approach cause through imitation motivates attraction success media heroes heroines
parents peers models individuals imitate likely attractive successful high status ourselves
whom familiar theorists take account cognitive aspects emphasis cognition shown aspects
bandura points children grow older begin guide their rather using others guidance begin
reward punish themselves start believing their characteristics abilities expectations affect
individuals approach task turn affects performance references abramson charles
exploratory studies preoral cavity harnessed carpenter ants camponotus pennsylvanicus
psychological reports owen matthew pharmacological aversion treatment alcohol
dependence production prediction american journal drug abuse millin paula riccio david
spontaneous recovery tolerance analgesic morphine physiology anthony july cognitive
analytic developments practice psychological science vancouver jeffrey changing signs
relationships among self efficacy personal goals performance journal applied psychology
nathan cognitive interactional model appraisal coping implications anxiety depression
sciences engineering
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