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General Psychology Chapter 14 Social Psychology Social Cognition: Making Sense of the World Social Psychology – field of psychology concerned with how others influence the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of the individual Social Cognition: Making Sense of the World • • What information about the social nature of the world do we have stored in memory? How does that information influence social judgments, choices, attractions, and behaviors? Social Cognition: Making Sense of the World Naïve realism – tendency for us to believe that we see the world in a more rational, objective way than other people do Nature of Attitudes Attitude – relatively stable disposition toward some object or event. Consists of: Affect Behaviors Cognitions Attitude Formation Formed through learning: Observational Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Figure 14.1: A schematic diagram of how attitudes may be formed through classical conditioning. Attitude Formation Mere exposure phenomenon – the more one is exposed to an object, the greater likelihood that he or she will develop positive attitudes about that object Attitude Formation Agenda setting: First level – media tells audience which issues are important Second level – media works to shape the audience’s attitudes about the issues it chooses to discuss Attitude Change Mechanisms Leon Festinger Cognitive Dissonance – a negative emotional state arises when our attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors are out of balance or are inconsistent Attitude Change by Persuasion Successful persuasion depends on nature of message and the audience Rational appeal Emotional appeal Fear appeal Attitude Change by Persuasion Elaboration likelihood model – model of persuasion stating that there are 2 alternative routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route Spotlight: Attitudes Toward People with Disabilities A person with a disability has difficulty performing certain functions (seeing, walking, etc.), has difficulty with the activities of daily life, or with certain social roles (school work, work on a job, etc.) Spotlight: Attitudes Toward People with Disabilities Persons with disabilities: Are often the object of prejudice and discrimination (even with laws prohibiting such discrimination) Are often seen as less able in areas unrelated to their particular disability Are often of lower-than-average economic status May be seen as not just different, but also damaged Figure 14.2: Leon Festinger’s results. Attitude Change Mechanisms Postdecisional dissonance – cognitive dissonance that occurs after making a decision between 2 mutually exclusive, equally attractive, different alternatives Attitude Change Mechanisms Darrel Bem Self-perception theory – we keenly observe behavior, including our own, and look for an explanation for that behavior Attitude Change Mechanisms Persuasion – application of rational and/or emotional arguments to convince others to change their attitudes and beliefs Attitude Change Mechanisms Yale communication model – considers the influence of the source of a message, the structure of a message, and the audience for a message Source very important! Prejudices, Stereotypes, and Discrimination Prejudice – attitude that represents a biased – often negative – disposition toward groups of persons Racism Sexism Prejudices, Stereotypes, and Discrimination Stereotype – rigid set of positive or negative beliefs about a group of people Rigid, over-generalized, often biased schema Explicit stereotypes Implicit stereotypes Prejudices, Stereotypes, and Discrimination Discrimination – behavioral component of prejudice The (usually) negative behavior(s) directed at a member of a group simply because of that person’s membership in the group Spotlight: Racial Profiling of African Americans and Hispanic Americans Profiling – when members of law enforcement stop, search, or arrest persons on the basis of their race or ethnicity, national origin, or religion Spotlight: Racial Profiling of African Americans and Hispanic Americans Blacks are stopped and searched about 20% more often than are Caucasians Problem perceived as worse than it is Example of aversive racism Racial profiling is outlawed in U.S. and 30 states Attribution Processes Internal attribution – explains the source of a person’s behavior in terms of a characteristic of the person (trait or disposition) External attribution – explains the source of a person’s behavior in terms of the situation or context outside the individual Attribution Processes Fundamental attribution error – tendency to favor internal attributions rather than external situational explanations Attribution Processes Just world hypothesis – bias in which people come to believe that good things only happen to good people and bad things only happen to bad people Attribution Processes Self-serving bias – success or positive outcomes are attributed to personal, internal sources, and failures, or negative outcomes are attributed to situational or external sources Attribution Processes Actor-observer bias – one tends to use external attributions for his or her behaviors and internal attributions for the behavior of others Interpersonal Attraction Reinforcement-affect model – people are attracted to others who provide rewarding experiences Social exchange model – what matters most is a comparison of the costs and benefits of establishing a relationship Interpersonal Attraction Equity theory – extends social exchange model to add appraisal of rewards and costs for both parties in a relationship Interpersonal Attraction Reciprocity – a person tends to value and like others who like and value him or her Proximity – simple physical closeness yields attraction Mere exposure phenomenon – liking increases with repeated exposure Physical attractiveness Factors Affecting Personal Attraction Matching phenomenon – suggests that one is often attracted to someone else of the same level of physical attractiveness and social status Opposites may attract, but similarity is more powerful over time! Conformity Modifying behavior under perceived pressure to do so, so that it is consistent with the behavior of others Conformity Solomon Asch – found that people were susceptible to social pressure when they were in an ambiguous situation True partner effect – any social support for one’s decision minimizes conformity Figure 14.3: The type of stimuli used in Asch’s conformity experiments. Conformity Factors influencing degree of conformity: 1. The more competent the majority, the greater the conformity 2. The more ambiguous the situation, the greater the conformity 3. Women conform more than men in some circumstances Obedience to Authority Obedience results when one yields to the pressure of perceived authority Obedience demonstrated in the laboratory by Stanley Milgram Teachers were asked to “shock” observers in a task presented as a learning experiment Even when “learners” yelled in protest, many participants continued with shocks when asked to do so by the experimenter Figure 14.4: Results from Milgram’s experiments. Bystander Intervention Social psychology of bystander intervention deals with the conditions under which observers (bystanders) will come to the aid of someone perceived to be in trouble Bystander Intervention 1. First, the bystander must notice what is happening. 2. The bystander must label the situation as an emergency. 3. The bystander must decide that it is his or her responsibility to do something. 4. The bystander must implement his or her decision. Figure 14.5: Bystander intervention model. Bystander Intervention Bystander effect – social inhibition of helping Accounted for by: 1. Audience inhibition – tendency to be hesitant to do anything in front of others, especially strangers Bystander Intervention 2. Pluralistic ignorance – one’s tendency to believe that he or she is confused and does not know what to do in an emergency, whereas everyone else is standing around doing nothing for some reason Bystander Intervention 3. Diffusion of responsibility – the greater the number of people present, the smaller is each person’s perceived obligation to intervene Bystander Intervention Empathy-altruism hypothesis – empathy is one reason for helping those in need Egoism – motive for helping someone in need is to avoid personal distress for not helping Social Loafing and Facilitation Social loafing is the tendency to work less (decrease individual effort) as the size of the group in which one is working becomes larger Social Loafing and Facilitation Social facilitation – when the presence of others improves an individual’s performance Social interference – when the presence of others leads to poor performance Decision-Making in Groups 1. Groups tend to recognize answers faster. 2. Groups with high-quality members perform better than those with low-quality members. 3. Groups bring more resources to problem-solving tasks. 4. Interpersonal cohesiveness and task-based cohesiveness increase productivity. Decision-Making in Groups Risky shift phenomenon – groups make decisions that are riskier than those made by individuals Group polarization effect– group participation will make any individual’s reactions more extreme or polarized Decision-Making in Groups Groupthink – 8 symptoms An illusion of invulnerability Rationalization Unquestioned belief in group’s inherent morality Stereotyped views of the enemy Conformity pressures Self-censorship An illusion of unanimity Emergence of self-appointed “mindguards”