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Climate Change Knowledge Area EXPLORATORY TEAM REPORT April 2008 The Challenge Challenge Statement Develop value-added research which will provide a solid understanding by wastewater industry managers and WERF subscribers of the likely impacts of climate change, including impacts on water quality, wastewater services and costs. The outcome of this challenge will be methods, processes, tools and information for effective planning and operational management of wastewater services to cost-effectively mitigate and adapt to the potential impacts of climate change. History Over the past year there has been growing interest in climate change due to increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and scientific findings on their effects. The interest in climate change also has resulted in new legislation (i.e. California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 or AB 32) and new research needs for the wastewater industry. In December 2007, the National Association of Clean Water Agencies (NACWA) met in Albuquerque New Mexico for the Water Sector Forum on Climate Change. In January 2008, the American Water Works Association Research Foundation (AwwaRF), WERF and the United Kingdom Water Industry Research (UKWIR) sponsored a joint workshop of experts to share knowledge on climate change-related impacts and adaptation strategies. Desired Outcome(s) This Challenge will provide information, guidance and tools to the water/wastewater industry to: Identify and reduce carbon emissions Understand and minimize impacts to operations due to changing hydrologic and climate conditions Make decisions on capital improvements in the face of climate uncertainty Communicate management approaches and their costs to its customers The energy management aspects of climate change are already included in the WERF Optimization Challenge. 1 April 2008 Rationale The impacts resulting from climate change may prove to be one of the biggest challenges facing the water industry in this century. Changes already seen in the record of the past half-century include an increase in extreme flow events, degradation of water quality, increases in water temperatures, and rising sea levels. These impacts are associated with global temperature increase of less than 1o C, and are expected to intensify as global temperatures rise another 2 to 5 o C by the end of the century. As more information becomes available from the scientific literature there is the growing concern about the effects of climate change and how utility operations will adapt. Many in the water and wastewater industry feel their sector will experience some of the more immediate and dramatic impacts of climate change and wish to have the knowledge and tools to adapt to these impacts. The industry could benefit greatly from guidance on how to address these challenges in its current operations and future practices. There has also been a growing awareness of the nexus between water and energy, and of the energy demands of the water/wastewater industry. The emerging regulatory agenda to curb greenhouse gas emissions has shifted unwanted attention to this industry. A recent EPA report that identifies the wastewater treatment sector as a top contributor to greenhouse gas emissions will undoubtedly bring a call for action for the industry to reduce its carbon footprint. These factors point to the need for research the wastewater industry can use to better understand the likely effects of climate change, including tools to assist in reducing its carbon footprint and guidance on how to modify infrastructure and operations to address the risks posed by climate change. The results of research in these areas will allow the wastewater industry to continue to provide high-quality services in the growing face of a changing climate. Background The study of climate change and its potential impacts on the environment has grown from the confines of academic research to international prominence over the last decade. The majority of this research has been in the area of water resources and how the hydrologic cycle will be affected. Based on analysis of existing records and on modeling simulations, rising temperatures will result in greater extremes in precipitation for both flooding and drought, earlier snowmelt, increased evapotranspiration rates with drier soils, warmer water temperatures, increased sedimentation in streams, and a rise in sea level. Numerous documents exist that describe these effects on both regional and local scales. Only a few of these are described in the following paragraphs since their findings relate most directly to water supplies and to the interests of the water utility industry. Climate change research has conducted by many organizations worldwide, with the most comprehensive effort from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This organization assesses and compiles climate change research based on peer reviewed and published scientific literature produced by thousands of scientists world wide. Its most recent assessment reports (IPCC, 2007), resulted in the IPCC being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 for their efforts to understand and disseminate knowledge about man-made climate change. Nationally, the U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) coordinates research by federal agencies on the interactions of natural and human-induced changes in the global environment 2 April 2008 and their implications for society. It incorporates and integrates the U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) with the Bush Administration’s U.S. Climate Change Research Initiative (CCRI). Participants in the CCSP include 13 federal agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Department of Energy, and National Science Foundation. Each of these federal agencies has a research agenda that is oriented towards the mission of their organizations. The USGCRP was created by Congress in 1990 with the mandate to develop a coordinated federal interagency research program. The USGCRP published a summary of climate change impacts in 2000 that provides a broad overview by geographic region and by type of impact (USGCRP, 2000). More recently the CCSP has produced draft synthesis and assessment reports on topics including weather and climate extremes in a changing climate (Product 3.1); coastal elevations and sensitivity to sea level rise (Product 4.1); preliminary review of adaptation options for climate-sensitive ecosystems and resources (Product 4.4); and impacts of climate variability and change on transportation systems and infrastructure in the Gulf Coast area (Product 4.7). In late December 2007 the CCSP issued a draft of its multiyear research strategy, which is a significant update to its previous 2003 plan. These draft studies and research plan were available for public comment through February 2008. The EPA is engaged in research that is more closely aligned with the mission of WERF. EPA’s Global Change Research Program has an emphasis on evaluating the potential consequences of climate variability and climate change on air quality, water quality, ecosystems, and human health in the United States. This includes improving the scientific basis for evaluating effects of global change in the context of other stressors, and evaluating the risks and opportunities presented by global change. This EPA program is multidisciplinary and emphasizes the integration of the concepts, methods, and results of the physical, biological, and social sciences into decision support frameworks. It has recently produced reports on the impacts of climate change in the Great Lakes and New England regions on implementing water quality-based effluent limits, and on combined sewer overflow mitigation (Furlow et al, 2006a, b). California has been a leader in climate change mitigation and adaptation work. A Climate Action Team was established in 2005 to develop biennial reports on potential climate change effects in the State in a number of areas including water resources and greenhouse gas emissions. It has become a clearinghouse of information and plans for the State (DWR, 2006). In 2006 the Governor signed the Global Warming Act, also known as AB32. This was the first program in the country to formally place a cap on greenhouse gas emissions. It includes reporting requirements emissions reductions to reach 1990 emissions levels by 2020. Greenhouse gas emissions from wastewater treatment plants include CO2 from combustion sources and purchased electricity, CH4 emissions from anaerobic secondary treatment processes, solids handling processes, and incomplete combustion of digester gas, and N20 emissions from nitrification-denitrification processes and from wastewater effluent in receiving streams. A reporting protocol was prepared recently for the California Wastewater Climate Change Group and the Bay Area Clean Water Agencies (CH2M Hill, 2007). There have been several recent publications directed towards the water and wastewater industry that provide guidance on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and on adapting to predicted impacts. One of the first of these was published by AwwaRF, Climate Change and Water Resources: A Primer for Municipal Water Providers. This study provides a summary of the 3 April 2008 climate change science and its hydrologic implications for water utilities. Although focusing on source water and the water treatment utilities, the Primer does provide valuable information on utility planning and adaptive management that can be of use to wastewater utilities (Miller and Yates, 2006). In July 2007 the Natural Resources Defense Council published In Hot Water: Water Management Strategies to Weather the Effects of Global Warming. This report focuses on the water utilities in the western U.S. It provides a concise summary of the IPCC’s most recent reports on climate change, and provides guidelines for water managers to design a comprehensive response to climate change. It recommends conducting a vulnerability analysis, developing strategies for addressing water supply and other impacts, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions (NRDC, 2007). In September 2007 the University of Washington and King County WA published Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local, Regional and State Governments. This guidebook provides on overview of climate change and its impacts, and then provides a detailed discussion of the processes to prepare for climate change. These include selection of a planning team, conducting vulnerability and risk assessments, and then setting, implementing and monitoring progress on the preparedness plans (Univ. of Washington, 2007). In November 2007 the U.S. Conference of Mayors published Climate Protection Strategies and Best Practices. This report summarizes the activities in 52 cities, many of which recognize that wastewater treatment consumes a significant part of their energy budget. However, few have taken steps to mitigate their carbon foot print. There may be an opportunity to align WERF with this association as a go to resource for city government to aid in development of strategies for carbon footprint reduction at wastewater treatment facilities (Mayors Climate Protection Center, 2007) In December 2007 the Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies prepared the document Implications for Climate Change for Urban Water Utilities. This brief report (14 pages) is intended to help water utilities move beyond barriers to understanding and developing responses to impacts related to climate change. It also includes a summary of predicted climate change processes and describes the impacts on water suppliers. Recommended responses to climate change also include conducting an analysis of system vulnerability, undertaking integrated resource planning (that considers environmental, socioeconomic as wells as engineering aspects of potential solutions), and reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Cromwell et al, 2007). While many reports recommend adaptation and mitigation strategies, few water and wastewater plants have made much progress in this area. A recent report, A Survey of Climate Change Adaptation Planning, provides a summary of efforts undertaken by municipalities in the United States and internationally. It also provides a review and analysis of 8 recently published adaptation and planning guidebooks, enabling a rapid review of this important topic (Heinz, 2007). A guidance document that should be valuable to WERF subscribers was published by the EPA on February 1, 2008, Ensuring a Sustainable Future: An Energy Management Guidebook for 4 April 2008 Wastewater and Water Utilities. This report is intended to help utilities systematically assess their current energy costs and practices, set measurable performance improvement goals, and Potential Projects under Optimization Challenge awaiting Approval and Funding Start Estimated 2008 Project Concept Budget* Energy Management Guidebook 6/08 $75 Life-cycle tool for green energy options (solar etc.) 6/08 $400 Best Practice Case Study w/ European experience 4/08 $150 Optimization Best Practices Database 9/08 $200 Optimize WWTP for C-constrained world 9/08 $100 2009 2010 2011 2012 monitor and measure their progress over time. The guidance follows the Plan-Do-Check-Act methodology embodied in environmental management systems and other utility management tools. This brief review of the literature suggests that relatively little guidance and few tools exist for the wastewater industry to help it prepare for and adapt to the effects of climate change. The ongoing research by WERF and others, summarized below, also do not address many topics of concern to the industry. To fill these gaps in understanding a series of research topics and specific research projects are recommended, as described in a later section. Related WERF Projects WERF has been involved in several studies on mitigation of climate change impacts, listed in the table below. These include a project studying the emission of greenhouse gases (nitrogen oxides) from nitrification/denitrification wastewater treatment processes, and several projects on energy recovery, energy management and process optimization. Many of these projects, particularly those involving energy management and recovery, are already being conducted under WERF’s Optimization Challenge (OWSO). The Optimization Challenge objectives specifically are to improve operation efficiencies in three areas: energy management, resource recovery, and solids reduction. The energy management and recovery aspects of this challenge are also mitigation opportunities to reduce the carbon footprint of wastewater treatment facilities. There is no current WERF effort to encompass the wide variety of potential climate change issues to which the wastewater industry must prepare to adapt. Current and ongoing WERF research on mitigation of climate change is found in the Optimization Challenge: 5 April 2008 Number PI 01-CTS-18UR Hugh Monteith, Hydromantis completed 2006 Nancy Love Michigan State Univ. ongoing 06U1R06 OWSO3R07 OWSO4R07 Project Dates Overview Hugh Monteith, Hydromantis 7/2007 – 2/2008 George Crawford, CH2M-Hill 10/2007 2012 OWSO5R07 David Parry CDM 10, 2007 - 2010 OWSO6R07 Joe Cantwell SAIC 10/2007 - 2008 TBD Steve Conrad, EMA (joint project under contract w/ AwwaRF) 2008 -2009 Kartik Chandran Columbia University 2008 - 2009 U4R07 Cost-effective Energy Recovery from Anaerobically Digested Wastewater Solids. Resulted in the Life Cycle Assessment of Energy Management and Recovery tool, user manual and project report. Apply recent nano technology to capture energy in wastewater for electrical generation using microbial fuel cells running on energy during ammonia oxidation Prepare a state of the science review of energy and resource recovery options from wastewater residuals to inform the GWRC water and energy workshop. Includes Triple Bottom Line Life Cycle Assessment. Provide the framework for pursuing research under the Optimization Challenge, including communications of results, QA/QC. First research project will be a best practices case study at the 100% energy selfsustainable WWTP in Strass Austria. Will include carbon footprint. Co-digestion of organic wastes from source which include food wastes and FOG, with wastewater solids to optimize anaerobic digestion of wastewater solids and production of biogas. Expanding energy management concepts into wastewater treatment plant design procedures, including models and value engineering, and design standards. Survey of state energy programs. Decision Support System for Sustainable Energy Management is a tool for utility managers using a triple-bottom line approach to evaluate trade-offs for sustainable energy management. Characterize Nitrogen based greenhouse gas emissions from autotrophic nitrification/denitrification pilot and full scale processes. Amend process models to reflect N2O GHG emissions. * 1,000 Other WERF projects which are related to some aspects of climate change are included in the Stormwater program, Watersheds and Water Quality program, Infrastructure Management program and Decentralized systems research. Other challenges with some potential to encompass select climate change issues include Strategic Asset Management, Pathogens and Human Health, Solids Risk and Nutrient Removal and Recovery challenge. 6 April 2008 RESEARCH PLAN Overall Goal(s) The goals of this research will be to provide information and tools the wastewater industry can use to adapt to the effects of climate change in the areas of operations, infrastructure, and public outreach. This will include research on accurately inventorying and reducing its greenhouse gas emissions, incorporating climate change into infrastructure design and decision tools for evaluating alternatives, understanding climate change effects on the water environment specifically related to water quality, evaluating system vulnerability and adaptation strategies, and developing methods to communicate these activities to policymakers and to the public. The energy management and recovery aspects of Climate Change mitigation are already part of the Optimization challenge. The Exploratory Team is interested in moving research on the ‘adaptation’ aspects of climate change forward in an expedient way. Research Questions Potential research questions to be addressed by this challenge include: How can the carbon footprint of wastewater treatment facilities be measured in a consistent way given the number of different protocols and carbon accounting organizations (IPCC, the Climate Registry, states and Federal agencies)? What are the opportunities (e.g. trading carbon credits) and well as risk from climate change? How can climate change be incorporated into infrastructure design? How can we get the public to understand the challenges of climate change and modify their behavior, e.g. increase its use of recycled/reused water? What will future discharge limits look like due to changes in flows and aquatic environments in receiving waterbodies? What are the financial implications of climate change on wastewater utilities? What are the key risks of climate change on wastewater utilities and how do these vary geographically? What are the adaptation strategies to cope with climate change impacts? Proposed Research Strategy: The Exploratory Teams recommends a phased research strategy, with immediate research needs to be bundled into a 5 year challenge and a long term plan to incorporate climate change in appropriate aspects of future research under all challenges and programs. The Research Council recommended that the Climate Change Challenge receive $215,000 and research will be leveraged by collaboration with other water research organizations to the extent possible. The Board of Directors approved this recommendation. The immediate Climate Change challenge will include these top ranked research concepts: 1. White paper to characterize climate change impacts to the wastewater utility industry Similar to white paper prepared for water supply industry (Miller, K., and D. Yates, 2006), this paper will provide an overview and discussion of the range of potential 7 April 2008 impacts that could affect the wastewater industry along with cost impact projections based on various scenarios (e.g., sensitivity analysis to determine what the “big cost” factors are). This study will require input from the wastewater industry focused review and case studies on historic extreme events projects. The outcome of this project will feed into the vulnerability analysis project. 2. Wastewater Industry Focused Review on Climate Change Knowledge and Research Organizations. There are so many research activities on climate change ongoing under numerous international (e.g. IPCC), Federal (e.g. National Center for Atmospheric Research) and state organizations (e.g. The Climate Registry) that the overall resources available and responsibilities of each organization are unclear. We must identify the best analyses, papers and studies before we can really identify research gaps in areas of immediate concern to WERF subscribers. While much of this will occur with each of the following projects, an overview of the state of climate change research will frame the path of the challenge and in conjunction with case studies project on historic extreme events described below will form the basis for the white paper on impacts to the wastewater utility industry 3. Clearinghouse/Guide for Navigating Climate Change Information, including trading in a Market-system, and Applying Consistent Energy Metrics Guidebook with definitions, consistent metrics, introduction, and guidance on carbon trading for the wastewater sector plus other information to support WWTP with sustainable, efficient operations and management. Develop a clearinghouse of information, tools and case studies of best practices to adapt to climate change. Additional potential projects on climate change were considered and may be undertaken in the future: 1. Guidance document on carbon trading for the WW utility sector. Prepare a guidance document for WERF subscribers that is a primer on carbon trading for the wastewater industry. 2. Demonstrate net sequestration of carbon in biosolids as compost or land application. 3. Evaluate Regulatory Barriers to Sustainability under Climate Change. 4. Wastewater Industry Vulnerability Analysis Handbook. A range of potential impacts will be developed in the white paper characterizing climate change impacts to the wastewater industry. This document will assist utility managers and engineers in apply a broad range of impacts to their facility specific operations and issues. A "what if" format might be appropriate to develop spreadsheets showing potential consequences, the risk of that consequence and then options for mitigating that risk with cost information. 5. Case studies on historic extreme events and effects on WW treatment plant operations. Evaluate case studies of extreme wet events and dry periods to assist infrastructure planners to adapt to climate change, particularly to high flows, ocean rise, etc. Recent 8 April 2008 experiences of severe drought in western Europe may provide insights concerning possible impacts in North America; 6. Wastewater Industry Emissions Inventory and Verification Handbook. Build on the ongoing work quantifying CH4 and N2O emissions (e.g. Unsolicited Research project U4R07), and results from the literature review report to integrate emission protocols already developed for CO2 and the other three GHG pollutants as applicable to our industry, to transform the protocols developed in California and the United Kingdom for CH4 and N2O into a comprehensive and manageable handbook which can be a primary source for our industry to determine greenhouse gas emissions. 7. Post discharge conversion of NH3 and NO3- to intermediate GHG nitrogen species like N2O and NO. Develop a receiving water model of the nitrification/ denitrification cycle with verified GHG emission predictions for a variety of water bodies and discharge limits. 8. Evaluate impacts of climate change on the designated use of waterbodies and/or review the UAA process to project how states may refine their designated uses. 9. Infrastructure planning to adapt cost-effective responses to climate change. 10. Identify carbon footprint in new infrastructure/construction. 11. Climate change impacts on soils and underground assets. The Exploratory Team anticipates that energy management, and energy and resource recovery research results under the Optimization challenge, will inform the Climate Change Challenge, but that these green house gas mitigation projects are best left in the ongoing Optimization challenge. As the immediate research needs listed above are addressed, future research under WERF will include aspects of climate change. The conceptual model of the Climate Change research plan is shown below: 9 April 2008 Climate Change Mitigation Adaptation Storm Water Optimization Energy Mgmt High Priority Challenge Emissions Caps Credits Infrastructure Management Vulnerability Extreme Events Carbon Market Pathogens & Human Health Decentralized Water Quality & Watersheds Solids Risk Nutrients The research strategy falls into two broad areas: to develop guidance and tools to assist the wastewater utility industry in addressing a variety of issues relating to climate change and to further research into appropriate green house gas emission protocols for the wastewater industry and reduce the carbon footprint. The first year comprises research topics recommended by international experts and includes reviews of knowledge, challenge framework, white papers and case studies. The second and third year will include developing handbooks, guides, establishing protocols, conducting models and creating tools to assist the industry in making informed decisions. In general these are single projects that last from 6 months to several years. 10 April 2008 Project Year 2008 1 2 3 4 Q Q Q Q 2009 2010 2011 2012 Convene IAT 1 Review of Knowledge of existing CC/EM tools 2 White Paper on CC Adaptation 3 Clearinghouse and Guide for Climate Change Desired Deliverables/products Several different deliverables would be produced, including but not limited to: reports, papers, fact sheets, technical briefs, regulatory handbooks, guides, model and spreadsheet tools as CDROM and web tools, workshops and conference presentations, plus learning modules &/or specific power point presentations. The following table identifies the logical assignment of often requested handbooks and guides between the Optimization and Climate Change Challenges. Project resulting in the Preparation of Handbooks Wastewater Industry Vulnerability Analysis Handbook Wastewater Emissions Inventory and Verification Guidance Handbook Handbook on Design and Operation of WWTPs to reduce GHG Emissions (in a C-Constrained World) Wastewater Industry Energy Efficiency Handbook Aspect Adaptation Mitigation Challenge Climate Change Climate Change Mitigation Optimization Mitigation Optimization Target Audiences The audience would be wastewater treatment professionals (utility managers and engineers), industries, governmental agencies (local, county, state, and federal), academic institutions, consulting engineers and scientists, international organizations (WHO, UN, ADB, World Bank), NGOs, and various environmental and other professional organizations. Project 1 Review of Knowledge 2 White Paper on CC Adaptation Deliverables Framework, technical brief, organizational brief Whitepaper, primer 3 Vulnerability Analysis Handbook 4 Case Studies on Extreme Events Handbook, tools Report, fact sheets, 5 Guide for Navigating Climate Change Guide, toolbox, conversions 6 Emissions Inventory Handbook Handbook, protocols, spreadsheet tools Model, report Guide book, fact sheet 7 Post Discharge N-cycle model 8 Guide to Carbon Trading Audience managers, researchers managers, engineers, scientists, public managers managers, engineers, scientists managers, engineers, scientists engineers, scientists Engineers, scientists managers FIRST STEP(S) FOR FUNDING Research priorities and strategy would be developed by WERF in consultation with “water environment industry” experts. This would then form the basis to seek funding and forge partnerships with various organizations, including but not limited to the following: U.S. EPA, including regions 11 April 2008 State agencies NACWA AwwaRF Wastewater treatment facilities (through WERF’s Targeted Collaborative Research or Peer Review Research program) WEF (Information Exchange and Technology Transfer) IWA (International Water Association) Equipment and process manufacturers and vendors The following potential funding sources will also be approached to reflect WERF’s international Subscribers and global perspective: Global Water Research Coalition UK Water Industry Research FEASIBILITY DISCUSSION The Challenge described above measures up well when assessed in terms of the Screening and Selection Criteria developed for the Research Council to further evaluate the Challenges. Below is a narrative which indicates how well the resource recovery from wastewater solids Challenge meets these criteria. Selection & Screening Criteria Discussion 1. Fits within WERF’s Mission. WERF is well suited to manage, coordinate, and fund (or co-fund) the research activities under the Climate Change Challenge. Identification of the affects of climate change on the water environment and the wastewater industry is directly related to WERF’s mission. 2. Cross Cutting or Broadly Applicable. The Climate Change Challenge crosses into every WERF Program Area and overlaps with several other Challenge areas. 3. Broadly Useful. The Climate Change Challenge provides value to almost all of the various sectors of WERF Subscribers and the water quality community. Climate change seems to be a cross-cutting challenge; however, focusing a new challenge on select climate change research sets a high priority to further this research. 4. Leverages Existing Efforts/ Breaks New Ground. The Climate Change Challenge advances short-term, incremental knowledge by building on existing research activities, but also establishes important new information and knowledge in response to an immediate need. 5. Timely. There is an urgent need for research on climate change, specifically for the select research questions prioritized into a new challenge. 6. Policy is in Place to Support Use of the Research. Legal or regulatory policies are being promulgated that would require action for greenhouse gas inventories, potential 12 April 2008 carbon caps and opportunities to take advantage of carbon credits and trading by applying the results of this challenge. 7. Solves a Problem. Successfully addressing the research needs prioritized in the Challenge will improve Subscriber’s ability to successfully serve their customers in the light of impending climate change, assist wastewater utilities comply with new regulations, and improve the water environment. 8. Technically Feasible. The Challenge is framed around 8 specific research concepts in order to be technically feasible and achievable in the time frame identified. The resultant research products are likely to be used by Subscribers and in fact, are requested by subscribers. The need is now for these projects. Ongoing or long term climate change issues can be addressed throughout existing challenges and programs. 9. Financially Feasible. The Challenge is framed to be focused and financially feasible. 10. Leverages Resources of other Organizations. Undertaking the Climate Change Challenge includes the likely potential for multiple sources of funding or technical support. Selected Publications on Climate Change Impacts on Water Supplies CH2M Hill, 2007. Discussion Paper for a Wastewater Treatment Plant Sector Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reporting Protocol. Prepared for the California Wastewater Climate Change Group and the Bay Area Clean Water Agencies. September. California Department of Water Resources, 2006. Progress on Incorporating Climate Change into Planning and Management of California’s Water Resources. July. [http://www.amwa.net/galleries/climate-change/AMWA_Climate_Change_Paper_12.13.07.pdf], accessed August 2007. Cromwell, J.E., et al, 2007. Implications of Climate Change for Urban Water Utilities. Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies. 18p. [http://www.ca.gov/climatechange/docs/DWRCclimatechangeJuly06.pdf], accessed December 2007. Furlow, J., T. Johnson, and B. Bierwagen, and ICF International, 2006a. A Screening Assessment of the Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) Mitigation in the Great Lakes and New England Regions. External Review Draft Report. EPA/600/R-07/033A. September. Furlow, J., T. Johnson, and B. Bierwagen, and ICF International, 2006a. A Screening Assessment of the Potential Impacts of Climate Change on the costs of Implementing Water Quality-Based Effluent Limits and Publicly-Owned Treatment Works in the Great Lakes Region. External Review Draft Report. EPA/600/R-07/034A. September. Heinz, 2007. A Survey of Climate Change Adaptation Planning. The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment, Washington, D.C., 52 p. October. 13 April 2008 [http://www.heinzctr.org/NEW_WEB/PDF/Adaptation_Report_October_10_2007.pdf], accessed January 2008. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Fourth Assessment Report. [http://www.ipcc.ch] Mayors Climate Protection Center, 2007. Climate Protection Strategies and Best Practices Guide. U.S. Conference of Mayors, November. 75 p. Miller, K., and D. Yates, 2006. Climate Change and Water Resources: A Primer for Municipal Water Providers. Awwa Research Foundation and University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. 83p. [http://www.awwarf.org/research/topicsandprojects/execSum/2973.aspx], accessed October 2007. US Global Change Research Program, 2000. Climate Change Impacts on the United States, 2000. [http://www.usgcrp.gov], accessed December 2007. 14