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Unit III Lesson 2 What’s In It For Me? Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning • Involves voluntary behavior • Learned through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses • Thorndike’s Law of Effect – If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will be repeated – If followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated Skinner’s Contribution • Stressed the study of only observable, measurable behavior. • Operant conditioning – Voluntary behavior used to operate on the environment – Focus on the effects of the consequences of behavior Reinforcement • Reinforcement – Event or stimulus following a response that increases the probability the response will occur again – Primary reinforcer • Reinforcer that meets a basic biological need – hunger, thirst, touch – Secondary reinforcer • Reinforcer associated with a primary reinforcer – praise, tokens, gold stars Positive and Negative Reinforcement • Positive reinforcement – Pleasurable consequence follows response • Negative reinforcement – Removal of unpleasant stimulus increases response – Escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. Operant vs. Classical Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement • Partial reinforcement effect – Response is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses • Response tends to be resistant to extinction • Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement of each and every correct response • Fixed ratio schedule – Number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same • Variable interval schedule – Interval of time must pass before reinforcement becomes possible – Amount of time different for each trial or event. Schedules of Reinforcement (2) • Fixed interval schedule – Interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible – Amount of time passing is always the same • Variable ratio schedule – Number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event. Punishment • Follows a response, making it less likely the response will happen again • Is the opposite of reinforcement – Punishment weakens responses, reinforcement strengthens responses – Punishment by application • The addition or experience of an unpleasant stimulus following a response – Punishment by removal • Removal of a pleasurable stimulus Problems with Punishment • May cause punished to avoid the punisher instead of the behavior being punished – Wrong response is learned • Can encourage lying to avoid punishment • May create fear and anxiety – Emotions not conducive to learning • Hitting provides model for aggression – Behavior is being modeled by the punisher How to Make Punishment More Effective 1. Punishment should immediately follow the behavior it is meant to punish. 2. Punishment should be consistent. 3. Punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the right behavior. Stimulus Control • Discriminative stimulus – Provides organism a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement Operant Conditioning Concepts • Shaping – Small steps toward goal behavior are reinforced until goal behavior is met • Successive approximations – The steps in behavior leading to a particular goal behavior • Extinction – Removal of reinforcement – Response drops out • Generalization – Response occurs with stimuli only similar to the original stimulus • Spontaneous recovery – Reoccurrence of a once extinguished response – Same as with classical conditioning Behavior Resistant to Conditioning • Instinctive drift – Tendency for an animal’s behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns after learning – Animals have genetically determined instinctive patterns of behavior – These instincts differ from species to species. – Some responses cannot be trained into an animal regardless of conditioning. Applying Operant Conditioning • Behavior modification – Use of conditioning techniques to create changes in behavior • Token economy – Desired behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges • Time-out – Organism is being “removed” from opportunity to obtain positive reinforcement • Applied behavior analysis (ABA) – Uses shaping-skills broken into small steps – Prompts are removed over time Biofeedback and Neurofeedback • Biofeedback – Use of feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses under voluntary control • I.E.: blood pressure, heart rate • Neurofeedback – Form of biofeedback – Uses brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity