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Behaviorism
Behavorism as a theory was most developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely includes the work of
such people as Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes these investigators is
their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions
are held to be true. First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the
environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time, two
events must be for a bond to be formed ) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the
likelihood that an event will be repeated ) are central to explaining the learning process. For
behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.
There are two types of possible conditioning:
1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the
case of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs
drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It
turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the
person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on
its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out
how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the
bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of
the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling.
2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a
punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as
Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the
environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the
likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the
behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punisher is not considered to be punishment if it
does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement
are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly
interested in measurable changes in behavior.
Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and
direct instruction have emerged from this model
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#Behaviorism)
Behaviorism
The philosophical or theoretical view that is most often shared by the scientists of
a given period is referred to as its “Zeitgeist” a German word meaning “the spirit of the
times.” In the early days of a science, the zeitgeist could change dramatically from one
time to the next. Major change in thinking concerning one of the most basic issues of
human development had already appeared several times in the centuries before the
science of developmental psychology emerged in the mid 1800s.
In the mid 19th century Charles Darwin, the British biologist, submitted his theory of
evolution. With his theory he offered the likelihood that many human behaviours had
their source in the past and as the 20th century dawned, the theories of biological
definitions of development swung back to the environmental site (Vasta,R., Haith,M.M.,
Miller,S.A. 1995).
In the light of this environmental understanding a new approach ´behaviourism´ was
recognised. By the behavioural point of view, learning is viewed as the ability to perform
new behaviour which is established as goals by the researcher or in applied situations,
the teacher. There is an effort made to create conditions which will enable the learner
to demonstrate these behaviours and continue to perform them over a period of time.
One creates these changes in behaviour by manipulating the environmental conditions.
Attention is given to these environmental changes both before and after a response
from the learner.
Most of the researches done in the beginning were done on animals though the
application of these theories related to a wide range of human behaviours including both
classroom and therapy situations.
The three most known psychological theorists, who lay the ground for the development
of the behavioural theories in the beginning of the century, were Thorndike, Pavlov and
Watson.
Edward Lee Thorndike(1874-1949).
His theory was a type of bound psychology
usually called connectionism. He saw the most typical learning as a form of trial and
learning process. He claims that one learns by selecting a response and receiving
reinforcements if it is correct, then a connection is made.
With his experiments on animals Thorndike established the laws of learning, that is, the
conditions which the right response to chosen stimuli will be firmly fixed in the animal's
behaviour. These laws can be divided into three categories:
1. Law of Effect, once a connection is made the strength of that connection is depended
on what follows. A reward will strengthen that behaviour and a punishment will
weaken the behaviour, later Thorndike added that rewards are more important than
punishment.
2. Laws of Readiness, indicated that if an organism has a state of readiness, making a
connection will be satisfying and the animal will do things to maintain the
connections. If the organism is not ready, the connection will become annoying and
the animal will do things to eliminate it. This readiness, however is not like reading
readiness, it is more like preparation for action. It has nothing to do with having the
necessary prerequisite skills, or being mature enough. Rather it is much more a
physical readiness.
3. Law of Exercise relates to the strengthening connections through practice and
weakening other connections through disuse. The Laws of Exercise has implications
for the use of practice and concepts of forgetting. .He later added to this law the
importance of not simple practice but of practice followed by rewards. Thus his Laws
of Effect and Exercise are related (Richey, Rita.,1986,p58).
Thorndike did not put any emphasis on the role of meaning or understanding. His work
was purely devoted to ways of increasing the occurrence of certain behaviours and
trying to understand how the events occurred.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlo (1849-1936).
The second psychologist to mention is Pavlov the father of Russian psychology. He
originally trained and worked as a physiologist but his experiment with animals laid a
fundamental base for the development of behavioural theories.
He studied circumstances in which one could produce a given response (salvation) by
using unrelated stimulus (light, bell) alone. This phenomenon presented itself after the
unrelated stimulus had been combined for a period of time with the more natural elicitor
of the desired response (food).
The technical term used is the unconditioned stimulus (food) for the normal way of
getting the response. In this normal situation, the natural response (salvation) is the
unconditioned response. It can become conditioned response if pair enough with a
conditioned stimulus (bell, light).
There are four aspects to the theories Pavlov constructed, based upon such classical
conditioning experiments, they are:
1. Reinforcement. Here reinforcement has a very exact meaning. It describes
circumstances in which a conditioned stimulus (eg. light or bell) is repeatedly followed
by an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. food) and its natural response. Pavlov’s
researches involved changing the reinforcement time schedules and produced
additional interpretation of the classical conditioning process. For an example it was
possible to obtain different responses to two stimuli by using reinforcement
techniques. This was known as differentiation.
2. Extinction. Experimental extinction was attained by dropping the unconditioned
stimulus (food) out of the experiment until the conditioned response (salivating to the
light) no longer presented itself. Extinction is not a case of forgetting. The response
is weakened considerably, but can recur.
3. Inhibitation. Experimental extinction is a type of inhibitation. A response can also be
eliminated when a confusing stimuli is used. Inhibitation can occur as a result of
differentiation, a situation in which the subject distinguishes between two stimuli
which previously generated the same response. Reinforcement can be used to
accomplish a variety of ends.
4. Generalisation. Generalisation occurs when eliciting properties of one stimulus is
taken on by another stimulus with which it is paired. If both stimuli are reinforced,
then generalisation can occur (if they are not both reinforced, a differentiation will
occur).
Pavlov’s many experiments clearly support conclusions regarding the power of
reinforcement (Richey, Rita., 1986).
John B. Watson (1878-1958).
Watson took side within the Darwinian movement and adapted new approach to the
development of the human mind. He was the first major psychologist to adopt the earlier
theories of John Locke (1632-1704) who believed that knowledge came to the child only
through experience and learning. The children were the products of their environment
and upbringing.
Watson´s new approach to psychology was called behaviourism, a theory of psychology
that says that human development result primarily from conditioning and learning
processes.
Many who were investigating psychology at this time were concerned with the
psychological function of the human mind, specially consciousness and issues revolving
about how the outside world is experienced internally and how individual perceptions
are combined to form ideas and thoughts. Their most general research method was
introspection, which involved engaging subjects in task or problem and having them to
try to look inward and give an account of the process occurring in their minds (Vasta,R.,
Haith, M.M., Miller,S.A., 1995).
Watson was not satisfied with the method of introspection and wanted to turn the
methods of investigation to an objective study of behaviour alone. He felt that
psychology should follow the example of the other natural science and deal only with
objective, observable subject matter - here, observable behaviour. His believe was that
the goal of psychology should be to predict and control behaviour, not to achieve a
subject understanding of the mind’s inner workings.
The basic idea of behaviourism was that shift in behaviour result primarily from
conditioning processes, rather than from inborn biological mechanisms.
Since behaviour was to be observed without assumptions about mental process along
with it, observations of the behavioural of animal got great importance. Watson admitted
it a little embarrassing using the results of the experiments of animals upon human
psychology and suggested a mixture of animal and human studies to appear (Vasta,R.,
Haith, M.M., Miller,S.A., 1995).
Watson believed that simple conditioning process, which he called the ´conditioned
reflex method´ explained how behaviour changes over time. All organism, man and
animal alike, adapt to their environment by two means: hereditary and habit. Certain
stimuli lead the organisms to make response. With such a system of psychology,
Watson believed that a stimulus could be predicted, given the response; or, given the
stimulus, the response could be predicted (Spencer, K.,
1991).(http://starfsfolk.khi.is/solrunb/behavio.htm).
Behaviorism
Definition
Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as
nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.
Discussion
Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two
different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:
1. Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular
example is Pavlov’s observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially,
animals and people are biologically “wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific
response.
2. Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced.
Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows
the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future. For
example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to
dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.
There have been many criticisms of behaviorism, including the following:
1. Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of the
mind.
2. Behaviorism does not explain some learning–such as the recognition of new language patterns
by young children–for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
3. Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. For
instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had
previously mastered through reinforcements.
How Behaviorism Impacts Learning
This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on observable behavior and
describes several universal laws of behavior. Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques
can be very effective–both in animals, and in treatments for human disorders such as autism and
antisocial behavior. Behaviorism often is used by teachers, who reward or punish student
behaviors. (http://www.funderstanding.com/content/behaviorism)