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Learning • A relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience Learning • Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov • Operant Conditioning – BF Skinner • Observational Learning – Albert Bandura Behaviorism • The idea that Psychology should be based on observable behavior and NOT on thoughts, feelings, or internal motivation • Adaptability- our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with changing circumstances • Associative learning- learning that links events together – (2 stimuli; classical conditioning) – response and consequence (operant conditioning) Concepts associated with Classical Conditioning • • • • • • • Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) Neutral stimulus (NS) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Acquisition- initial pairing of the NS with the US Extinction- the diminishing of the CR; or when the US and the NS are no longer paired to elicit the CR. Ex. Presenting the US without the NS • Spontaneous recovery the reemergence of the CR • Generalization the capacity to respond to stimuli similar to the CS • Discrimination- the capacity to distinguish between the CS and irrelevant stimuli Facts to know about Classical Conditioning • Minimal time should lapse when pairing the NS and the US • The more predictable the association the stronger the CR • Natural selection favors traits that aid in survival (taste aversions, mating rituals are difficult to extinguish • Classical conditioning is one way organisms adapt to their environment • Provides a process by which learning can be studied objectively Operant Conditioning • Learning due to results (operant) • Learning with events it doesn’t control (classical) • Thorndikes Law of Effect – Rewarded behavior is likely to recur BF Skinner • BF Skinner – Skinner conditioned pigeons to do very “UN pigeonlike” behavior – “Skinner box”- box where an animal presses a bar or lever to release a reward also functions as a device that records the behavior Shaping – Shaping • Where reinforcers guide an animals behavior towards a desired behavior – Ex. Petsmart, Pet-Co • Successful approximation- gradually rewarding behaviors closer to a desired result – guide an animal’s natural behavior toward a desired behavior. By rewarding responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior (successive approximations), and ignoring all other responses, researchers can gradually shape complex behaviors. » Seeing eye dogs Token Economy • Token economy – An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats • Token economies have been successful in an array of settings – Homes, hospitals, schools, mental institutions, prisons – This technique is especially effective with the mentally ill and mentally disabled Token Economy • Criticisms of Token economies – What happens when the reinforcement stops? As in when the person leaves the institutuion – Ethical concerns… • Is it right for one human to control another human being’s behavior? Reinforcement and Punishment • Reinforcement is any event that increases the likelihood a behavior will repeat itself – Positive reinforcement a tangible reward – Negative reinforcement removing an aversive stimulus as a reward • Primary reinforcers – Getting food when hungry, etc. • Conditioned or secondary reinforcers – Getting money for good grades, praise, etc. (we LEARN these things are linked to basic rewards) Reinforcement • Immediate reinforcement vs. delayed reinforcement – Animals do NOT readily respond to a delayed reinforcement – Humans on the other hand DO (sign of maturity; delayed gratification) • Ex. Paycheck after 2 wks • Trophy at the end of a season • College graduation – Exceptions to the rule: unprotected sex, smokers, SUVs Reinforcement schedules • Continuous reinforcement- the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs • Partial (intermittent) reinforcement- where responses are sometimes reinforced – Has a greater resistance to extinction (ie hope springs eternal!) ex. Children & tantrums, gamblers..etc. Intermittent or partial reinforcement schedules • Fixed ratio- reinforces behavior after a FIXED number or responses – Sweatshop workers getting paid by the # of completed pieces • Variable ratio- reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses – slot machines • Fixed interval- reinforces at a FIXED time – 2 week paycheck (showing up to work on pay Friday) • Variable interval- reinforces at an unpredictable time – Fishermen – Button pushing at an elevator • Which reinforcement schedule yields the highest # of responses? – Variable Ratio Punishment • Punishment is any event that decreases the likelihood a behavior will repeat itself – Positive punishment- administering an aversive stimulus. ie spanking – Negative punishment- removing a reinforcer. Taking cell phone or car keys • Punishment MUST be given consistently • Intermittent punishment usually has the effect of rewarding unwanted behavior – A supervisor overlooking the late arrival of an employee Punishment • The power of punishment to suppress behavior disappears when the threat of punishment is removed – Ex. Speeders observe the limit ONLY when police are watching • Punishment triggers escape or aggression – Wounded animal will turn and fight – Prison riots, etc. • Punishment makes the learner apprehensive which inhibits learning new and better responses – Learned helplessness ------ Depression Punishment • Punishment should be swift • Punishment should be limited in duration and intensity • Punishment should target the behavior • Punishment should be limited to the situation in which the response occurred • Punishment works best when combined with a reinforcer • The most effective punishment is usually omission training Observational Learning • Albert Bandura – Bobo dolls • Where we observe and imitate others – Ex “monkey see, monkey do” • Modeling – the process of observing and imitating specific behavior • Mirror neurons- located in the frontal lobe of the brain that provide a neural basis for observational learning • Pro-social behaviors – People who perform positive helpful behavior can prompt similar behavior in others – Ex. Mahatma Gandhi--- MLK--- civil rights movement in America • Television – Cartoon violence yields violent children Observational Learning