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AP PSYCHOLOGY EXAM REVIEW Session 1: History and Approaches, Methods, States of Consciousness Good Resources Variety of AP Review Books College Board Website: https://apstudent.collegeboard.org/apcourse/appsychology Crash Course Psychology: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vo4pMVb0R6M&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOPRKzVLY0jJ Y-uHOH9KVU6 Discovering Psychology Series: http://www.learner.org/series/discoveringpsychology/ 5 Essential Tips from Barron’s AP Psychology Know the psychological perspectives Know your terms Psychology is a science. Application is key. Use what psychology teaches you about cognition to improve your study habits. The Fabulous 15 Psychologist Major Contributions Solomon Asch Conformity experiments Albert Bandura Social-learning theory (modeling) Albert Ellis Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) Erik Erikson Psychosocial stage theory of development Sigmund Freud Psychosexual stage theory of personality; stressed importance of unconscious; psychoanalysis Harry Harlow Attachment studies with monkeys Lawrence Kohlberg Stage theory of moral development Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of needs; self-actualization The Fabulous 15 Psychologist Major Contributions Stanley Milgram Obedience studies Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning—studies of dogs and salivation Jean Piaget Stage theory of cognitive development Carl Rogers Person/Client-centered therapy; unconditional positive regard B.F. Skinner Operant conditioning—reinforcement John B. Watson Father of Behaviorism; Baby Albert experiment Wilhelm Wundt Set up first psychology laboratory; theory of structuralism History and Approaches Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychological laboratory in Germany Introspection: subjects asked to accurately record their cognitive reactions to stimuli Structuralism: idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations William James published the first psychology textbook Functionalism: focused on the functions of consciousness and behavior Gestalt psychology tried to examine a person’s total experience Sigmund Freud revolutionized psychology with psychoanalytic theory John B. Watson founded behaviorism—psychologists should only study behavior and causes of behavior History and Approaches Humanistic perspective: belief that people choose most of their behaviors and these choices are guided by physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs. Psychoanalytic perspective: the unconscious mind controls much of our thoughts and actions. Biopsychology (or Neuroscience) perspective: explains human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes Evolutionary perspective: examines human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Behavioral perspective: explains human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning. Cognitive perspective: examines human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events. History and Approaches Sociocultural Perspective: how thoughts and behaviors vary from culture to culture. Biopsychosocial perspective: human thinking and behavior results from combinations of biological, psychological, and social factors. Methods Hindsight bias: tendency of people to think they knew it all along Goal of scientific research is to predict what will happen in advance Applied research has clear, practical applications Basic research explores questions of interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications Hypothesis: expresses a predicted relationship between two variables According to an experimental hypothesis, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable Theory: aims to explain some phenomenon and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses Methods Operational definitions explain how a variable is measured Research is valid when it measures what the researcher set out to measure Research is reliable when it can be replicated Sample: group of participants Representative sample: sample represents the population of interest Random selection: every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected Stratified sampling: process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria Methods Laboratory experiments are conducted in a highly controlled environment Field experiments are conducted out in the world Confounding variable: any difference between experimental and control conditions, except for the independent variable, that might affect the dependent variable Random assignment: each participant has an equal chance of being placed into any group Experimenter bias: the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently Double-blind procedure: the participants do not know which group they are in and the researcher interacting with the participants does not know which group participants are in Methods Experimental group: receives the treatment operationalized in the independent variable Control group: get none of the independent variable Correlation: expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause. Positive correlation: the presence of one variable predicts the presence of the other variable Negative correlation: the presence of one variable predicts the absence of the other variable Survey method: people complete a survey Naturalistic observation: view participants in their natural setting without interacting with them Methods Case study method: used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants Descriptive Statistics: describes data Measures of central tendency: attempt to mark the center of a distribution Mean: average Median: central score in a distribution Mode: score that appears most frequently Methods Measures of variability attempt to depict diversity of a distribution Range: distance between the highest and lowest scores Standard deviation: measure of the average distance of any score in the distribution from the mean Inferential statistics: determines whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected. Statistically significant results: unlikely to have occurred by chance Methods APA Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research: Must have clear, scientific purpose Must answer a specific, important, scientific question Animals chosen must be best-suited to answer the question at hand They must care for and house animals in a humane way They must acquire animal subjects legally They must design experimental procedures that employ the least amount of suffering feasible Methods APA Ethical Guidelines for Human Research: No coercion Informed consent Anonymity or confidentiality Risk Debriefing States of Consciousness Conscious: what is currently in our awareness Preconscious: not currently in awareness but can easily be recalled Unconscious: events or feelings unacceptable to the conscious mind Circadian rhythm: our metabolic and thought processes follow a certain pattern REM Sleep: characterized by rapid eye movements and active brain waves Insomnia: common sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep States of Consciousness Narcolepsy: periods of intense sleepiness, often falling asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate times Sleep apnea: breathing stops for short periods of time during the night Night terrors: disorder affecting mostly children involving screaming and movement with no recollection of the event afterwards Sleep walking is more common in children States of Consciousness Freud believed dreams helped uncover information in the unconscious mind Manifest content: the literal content of our dreams Latent content: the unconscious meaning of the manifest content Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming: dreams are nothing more than the brain’s interpretations of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep Information-processing theory: stress during the day increases the number and intensity of dreams and the content relates to daily concerns States of Consciousness Hypnosis: trance-like, suggestible state Post-hypnotic suggestion: a suggestion that a person behave a certain way after being brought out of hypnosis Role theory: hypnosis not an altered state but rather a person is acting out the role of hypnotized person State theory: through suggestion some people become more or less aware of their environments Dissociation theory: hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily States of Consciousness Psychoactive drugs: chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and induce an altered state of consciousness Molecules of psychoactive drugs are small enough to pass through the blood-brain barrier Agonists: drugs that mimic neurotransmitters Antagonists: drugs that block neurotransmitters Tolerance: physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect States of Consciousness Stimulants: drugs that speed up body processes Depressants: drugs that slow down body processes Hallucinogens: drugs that cause changes in perceptions of reality Opiates: drugs that act as agonists for endorphins and thus are powerful painkillers and mood elevators