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Name: _________________________ Unit 6 Notes In 1851, Gregor Mendel (a priest from Europe) taught In the garden, Mendel grew hundreds of pea plants and began noticing that they Some pea plants were Some pea plants produced Mendel observed that the pea plant’s traits were Heredity = the passing of physical characteristics from parents to offspring. Genetics = the scientific study of heredity Mendel is known as the Mendel’s Peas A new organism begins to form when egg and sperm are When plants fertilize themselves, Mendel developed a method by which he could cross-pollinate his Mendel’s Experiments Mendel started his experiments with Purebred = offspring of many generations that have the same trait. Mendel’s First Experiment Mendel crossed ____________________ with _____________________ (P1 generation) The offspring of the P1 cross were called the ______________________ (F1 generation) The offspring of the F1 cross were called the ______________________ (F2 generation) See results in Figure 2, p. 78 Note: the F2 offspring are Dominant and Recessive Alleles Mendel’s experiments taught him that individual genes must Alleles = the different forms of a gene Example: stem height gene has a The female parent gives one allele, the Mendel also learned that one allele can Name: _________________________ Example: the _______________ masked the _______________ in the F1 generation (Figure 2, p. 78) Individual alleles control the Dominant allele = one whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present Recessive allele = one whose trait is hidden whenever the dominant allele is present. Examples: If we cross two tall P1 plants, can we have a short F1 plant? _____ If we cross one tall P1 plant and one short P1 plant, can we have a short F1 plant? _____ Offspring are hybrids (they have two different alleles for the same trait) If we cross two short P1 plants, can we have a short F1 plant? _____ Using Symbols in Genetics Scientists use letters to A dominant allele is represented by a Example: dominant tall stem height = _____ A recessive allele is represented by the lowercase version of Example: recessive short stem height = _____ When two dominant parents produce offspring _____ When one dominant and one recessive parent produce offspring __________ When two recessive parents produce offspring _____ Probability = the likelihood that a particular event will occur Principles of Probability If you tossed a coin… What is the probability that the coin would land heads up? _____ What is the probability that the coin would land tails up? _____ In twenty tosses, how many would you predict would land heads up? _____ The laws of probability predict what is likely to occur – not Probability and Genetics Mendel was the first scientist to recognize that the principles of probability can Name: _________________________ Mendel counted the offspring of every Example: Mendel crossed two plants hybrid for stem height (Tt x Tt) – _____ of the F1 offspring had tall stems, _____ had short stems Therefore, the probability of producing long-stemmed offspring is _______, and the probability of producing short-stemmed offspring is _______ Punnett Squares Punnett square = = chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from genetic crosses Punnett squares can also predict the probability of a particular outcome. Phenotype = physical appearance (what it looks like) Examples: Genotype = genetic makeup (what allele combination is present) Examples: Homozygous = an organism that has identical alleles for a trait Examples: Heterozygous = an organism that has two different alleles for a trait (hybrid) Examples: For the following examples, use these abbreviations: Homozygous dominant tall = ______ Heterozygous (hybrid) tall = ______ Homozygous recessive short = _____ Example: P1: dominant tall x dominant tall F1 result __________ _____ chance of being _____ Example: P1: dominant tall x hybrid tall F1 result __________ _____ chance of being _____ Name: _________________________ Example: P1: dominant tall x recessive short F1 result __________ _____ chance of being _____ Example: P1: hybrid tall x hybrid tall F1 result __________ _____ chance of being _____ _____ chance of being _____ Example: P1: hybrid tall x recessive short F1 result __________ _____ chance of being _____ _____ chance of being _____ Example: P1: recessive short x recessive short F1 result __________ _____ chance of being _____ Codominance Sometimes, a dominant allele and a recessive Codominance = Examples: Chickens in Figure 10, p. 89 Labrador Chromosomes and Inheritance In 1903, Walter Sutton studied Chromosome theory of inheritance = genes are carried from parents to their offspring on chromosomes Name: _________________________ Sex cells (eggs and sperm) contain half the number of Meiosis = the process by which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half to form sex cells (eggs and sperm) See “Meiosis” on p. 94-95 Meiosis and Punnett Squares See Figure 14, p. 95 Also, a Punnett square can be used to determine the Example: P1: _____ (male) x _____ (female) F1 results 2 females, 2 males _____ chance of being _______ _____ chance of being _______ Chromosomes Organisms can vary greatly in the number of chromosomes in their body cells Humans have ___________________ (23 pairs) per body cell Dogs have ___________________ per body cell Goldfish have ___________________ per body cell Note: larger organisms do not Although your body may only have 23 pairs of chromosomes, your body cells contain between ________________________________ – each controlling a particular trait That is why no two See Figure 15, p. 96 The Genetic Code The main function of genes is to control the Proteins help determine the size, shape, and Chromosomes are DNA is composed of four different nitrogen bases (____________, ___________, ____________, ____________) A single “rung” on the DNA “ladder” contains hundreds of The nitrogen bases are Example: ATGACGTAC The order of the nitrogen bases along a gene forms a genetic code that Name: _________________________ Groups of three nitrogen bases result in the Amino acids combine to Think of the following analogy: Nitrogen bases = Amino acids = Protein = How Cells Make Proteins Protein synthesis = the production of proteins The cell uses information from a gene on a chromosome to Takes place on the ribosomes in the The Role of RNA RNA and DNA are similar, but RNA looks like only one RNA contains a RNA has the nitrogen bases adenine, guanine, and cytosine, but has ____________ (U) instead of thymine Types of RNA Messenger RNA (mRNA) = copies the coded message from the DNA in the nucleus and carries the message to the cytoplasm Transfer RNA (tRNA) = carries amino acids and adds them to the growing protein Translating the Code See “Protein Synthesis” p. 100-101 Know steps one through four! Mutations Types of Mutations Single-base substitution (Example: Chromosomes do not separate evenly during meiosis (resulting in The Effects of Mutations Helpful mutations – Example: Harmful mutations – Example: Neither helpful nor harmful mutations – Example: Name: _________________________ Chapter 4-1 Traits Controlled by Single Genes Many traits are controlled by a Often one allele is dominant, and Example: Figure 2, p. 111 P1 genotype: _____ x _____ P1 phenotype: _____________ x _____________ F1 genotype: 1 _____, 2 _____, 1 _____ F1 phenotype: _____ widow’s peak, _____ straight hair line Multiple Alleles Some human traits are controlled by a single Multiple alleles = Example: Human blood types (Figure 3, p. 112) There are four main blood types – _____, _____, _____, _____ Three alleles control the The allele for type A and the The allele for type Note: People with type O blood are “______________________” People with type AB blood are “______________________” Traits Controlled by Many Genes Some human traits show a large number of phenotypes because the Examples: Height – Skin color – The genes act together as a Male or Female? The sex of a baby is determined by Each human body cell has One pair is made of two sex chromosomes The sex chromosomes determine The sex chromosomes are the only pair of Name: _________________________ Remember from Chapter 3: _____ (Female), _____ (Male) See Figure 5, p. 113 Sex-Linked Genes Sex-linked genes = Because males have only one X chromosome, males are more likely than Example: _________________________________ See Figure 6, p. 114 See Figure 7, p. 115 It takes two recessive alleles to have a Carrier = But, it takes only one recessive allele to have a The Effect of the Environment The effects of genes are often Examples: Diet Due to better eating habits, the average height of adults in the U.S. Medical care Living conditions Chapter 4-2 Genetic Disorders Genetic disorder = Genetic disorders are caused by mutations (changes in a Examples: Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis = genetic disorder in which the Bacteria grow in the The mutation that causes cystic fibrosis is Currently, there is no Name: _________________________ Sickle-Cell Disease Sickle-cell disease = genetic disorder that Hemoglobin = When oxygen concentrations are low, red blood cells Figure 9, p. 118 The sickle-shaped cells cannot carry as much oxygen and The mutation that causes sickle-cell disease is Currently, there is no Hemophilia Hemophilia = genetic disorder in which a A person with hemophilia can The mutation that causes hemophilia is caused by a recessive allele on the Currently, there is no People with hemophilia can live normal lives – Down Syndrome Down syndrome = results when a person’s cells have an People with Down syndrome have a distinctive physical appearance and p. 117 Heart defects are Despite limitations, people with Down syndrome can Pedigrees Pedigree = Geneticists use pedigrees to trace the See Figure 10, p. 119 Circle = Square = Colored shape = Half-colored shape = No color in shape = Horizontal line = Vertical line & bracket = Diagnosing Genetic Disorders Name: _________________________ Scientists began diagnosing genetic disorders with Today, scientists use tools such as amniocentesis and Amniocentesis = procedure done before a baby is born which Cells are taken from the Karyotype = Made from the Genetic counseling = Chapter 4-3 People have developed several ways to Selective breeding Selective breeding = the process of selecting a few organisms with Techniques Inbreeding = involves crossing Hybridization = involves crossing Cloning Clone = an organism that is In plants, scientists grow new plants from cuttings (small parts of In animals, scientists remove an egg, replace the This process takes three different This is controversial, since removing the nucleus can be Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering = genes from one organism are Also called “gene splicing” because DNA is Genetic engineering was first See “Genetic Engineering” on p. 126 We use genetically engineered bacteria to create insulin (a drug to We also use bacteria to create human growth hormone (a protein Genetic Engineering in Other Organisms Bacteria have been implanted into tomatoes, wheat, and rice to enable them to: Survive in Grow in Name: _________________________ Resist Genes have been inserted into animals, which then create Example: cows can produce a protein that clots blood – helping Gene therapy = process of using genetic Working copies of a gene are Example: “engineered” viruses can be inserted into the DNA Fingerprinting DNA fingerprinting = Scientists have found ways gather DNA samples from These techniques have The Human Genome Project Genome = Researchers estimate that there are __________-__________ genes in one cell’s DNA The main goal of the Human Genome Project is to identify the This would help us understand the following: How What What causes Potential treatments/cures for