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Comparative Civilizations 12
Chapter 5
The Rise of Rome
We study Roman civilization today for many reasons.
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The Roman constitution is a model for many democracies
Roman architecture was unmatched until recently
Romans were able to administer people well, while letting them keep their
own culture
Roman society was founded on principles of justice and fair treatment for
themselves and foreigners alike
GEOGRAPHY
The Mediterranean Sea -- known as Mare Nostrum or Our Sea -- surrounds the Italian
peninsula on three sides. The other side is separated from Europe by the Alps mountain
chain, which is a natural defense for Northern Italy. The 1000 km long, 200-km wide
peninsula is divided by the Apennine Mountains, which was a barrier for internal
communications.
Also water transportation was favoured by the Romans, there were few navigable rivers.
The two most important rivers are the Po River and the Tiber River.
Romans were notoriously unadventurous sailors and preferred to trade close to the coast,
rather than venture into the Mediterranean Sea. There were very few good harbours in
Italy, so an artificial port was built at Ostia to supply the city Rome.
The Italian peninsula is not rich in minerals. Copper was mined in Tuscany and iron was
found on the island of Elba. Tin, which was needed in the alloy bronze, came from as far
as Cornwall, England. Limestone known as "tufa" was found close to Rome. Marble
came from Carrara, but it was very expensive and hard to work. Romans mixed volcanic
dust with aggregate and water to make concrete.
The soil surrounding Mt. Vesuvius was very fertile. The soil surrounding the Po River
was also very fertile. However, Romans were unable to grow enough grain to feed them,
and needed to import grain from Sicily and Egypt.
The climate of Italy is very mild because the Mediterranean moderates the temperature.
The mild temperature, along with general agricultural prosperity, seclusion from the rest
of Europe, and a central position in the Mediterranean world were all important factors in
the development of Rome.
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THE ETRUSCANS
The society that dominated the Italian peninsula before the Romans was known as the
Etruscans. The Etruscans controlled territory from the Po to the Cumae on the northern
edge of the Bay of Naples. The Etruscan power was limited in the north by the Apennine
Mountains. Rome was not one of the Etruscan League of Twelve Cities.
The Etruscans buried their dead in tombs dug into the ground or under big mounds of
earth. The tombs resembled the homes of living people. The tomb walls were often
decorated with paintings that now show us the influence the Etruscans had on Roman
society.
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Numerals, human blood sports, superstition
The high magistrates of the Roman Republic took over the purple garb and
ivory thrones of the Etruscan kings
The symbols of authority over life and death -- the fasces -- were also taken
over as well
The Etruscans may have been native to Italy or may have been immigrants from Asia
Minor. They were skilled artisans and accomplished traders.
THE MONARCHY
The period of monarchical rule lasted from Rome's mythical founding on 21 April 753
BC to 509 BC. According to the historian Livy, there were seven kings of Rome.
Romulus (753 - 715 BC) was supposedly the son of Mars, the god of war, and a
priestess, Rhea Silvia. Their uncle Amulius had ordered the death of Romulus and his
twin brother Remus. The twins were thrown into the Tiber River and they eventually
landed near Palatine, one of the Seven Hills of Rome, and the home of the Emperors. A
she-wolf suckled the boys until a shepherd found them. The boys had a disagreement
over the founding of Rome and Romulus killed Remus.
Numa Pompilius (715 - 673 BC) was supposedly a Savine and responsible for several
religious innovations.
Tullius Hostilius (673 - 641 BC) was known for his expansion of Rome's influence and
his attack on Alba Langa, Rome's mother city in Latium.
Ancus Marcius (641 - 616 BC) was known for his statesmanship and for resettling the
Latins in Rome and granting them security.
Over time, the Etruscans extended their power to include Rome and replaced Roman
kings with Etruscan ones.
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L. Tarquinius Priscus (616 - 579 BC) built the great temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximum
on the Capitoline. In later times, Roman life was centred on the capitolium. Priscus also
built the sewer system, which drained the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills
in Rome.
Servius Tullius (579 - 534 BC) completed the city building started by Priscus.
L. Tarquinius Superbus (534 - 509 BC) was the last Etruscan king. He was overbearing
and tyrannical. His son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped Lucretia, which lead to a rebellion by
the Romans.
THE REPUBLIC
The Roman Republic (Res Publica, public matter) lasted from 509 BC to 27 BC and
can be seen as a battle between the Patricians -- the land owning aristocracy -- and the
Plebeians -- the poor and landless.
THE LADDER OF LEADERS
The Roman Republic was known as the Senatus Populusque Romanus (the Senate and
the People of Rome). Although the Roman constitution was never produced in a written
form, it does form the basis of many countries' constitutions, including the United States
of America.
Assemblies
The magistrates were drawn from several assemblies. The Senate originally was a
council made up of wealthy land owning males who advised the king. All patrician
males with enough money could be members of the Senate.
The Comitia Centuriata was an assembly of all land-owning male citizens, which were
divided into five electoral classes segregated according to wealth. The wealthiest class
voted first. The job of this assembly was to pass laws presented to it by the annually
elected senior magistrates.
The Comitia Curiata comprised the thirty divisions of the citizenry (curiae) from the
three clans, Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities. The job of this assembly was to confirm the
magistrate's right to exercise the authority already given by the Comitia Centuriata.
The Comitia Tributa was composed of all citizens and could pass laws on behalf of all
the people.
The Concilium Plebis was a tribal assembly much like the Comitia Tributa but
aristocrats could not be members. It passed plebiscita that had the force of law.
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Magistrates
Two members of the Senate were elected to the position of consul and they were the
chief magistrates of Rome. Consuls were elected annually, and the senior consul had the
power of veto over the junior one.
A dictator was an extraordinary position appointed by the consuls for a specified period,
usually 6 months. A dictator could rule without consulting any of the assemblies.
The praetors were the magistrates under the consuls. As the empire got bigger, more
praetors were needed to help administer the empire.
Two censors held office for five-year terms. Censors had to have held the position of
consul first. Sensors had to draw up the lists of Roman citizens.
The aediles were originally assistants to the consuls, but eventually became responsible
for the maintenance of roads, public executions, water, and official standards of measure.
The quaestors were annually elected officials in charge of administrating financial
matters.
The People and their Tribunes
The Council of Plebeians was set up to give power to non-patricians and membership
was restricted to non-Senatorial males. Two tribunes were elected annually and they
could even veto the decisions of consuls.
Growth and Maturity
For 400 years, the Roman Republic underwent massive expansion and faced many
dangers
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The Gauls of Europe besieged Rome, but Rome recovered and fought back
Rome struggled for power over the sea as its desire for increased trade grew.
This led to a war with the Carthaginians who were the greatest maritime
power in the western Mediterranean
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THE PUNIC WARS
There were three clashes with the Carthaginians:
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First Punic War
Second Punic War
Third Punic War
264 - 261 BC
218 - 202 BC
149 - 146 BC
The word "Punic" is derived from the Latin word meaning Phoenician, referring the
Carthaginian origins
The Second Punic War was the most dangerous time for Rome. Hannibal was the
Carthaginian military leader of the time, and he ruled Spain as his own private kingdom.
Hannibal led a land-based attack on the Romans by crossing the Alps. Hannibal lost
between 9 and 14 000 soldiers and 36 war elephants (26 000 soldiers and 1 elephant
survived). Hannibal led 4 great battles that led to huge Roman losses. For example on 2
August 216 BC, at Cannae in southern Italy, over 50 000 from a Roman army of 86 000
were annihilated in one day
Hannibal managed to conquer most of the Italian peninsula, however he never captured
Rome. It took the Romans 14 years to drive Hannibal out of Italy and back to Carthage,
in Northern Africa.
Why did the city of Rome escape?
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The Carthaginians saw no advantage in setting siege to a city that had been
recently fortified
Hannibal was fearful of a city that after so many disastrous engagements
could continue to raise army after army
SCIPIO AFRICANUS
Publicius Cornelius Scipio was appointed by Romans to command in Spain and
systematically rid Spain of the Carthaginians. Scipio established a permanent and
undeniable Roman presence in Spain
In 205 BC Scipio took an army to Spain and kicked out Hannibal. He then crossed to
Africa and ultimately captured Tunis in 203 BC. After this, the Carthaginians sued for
peace. Hannibal returned to Italy while the peace terms were being considered and
started up war once again. Scipio joined with the Masinissa, king of Numidia, and
defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. For this victory, Scipio was given
the honorary name "Africanus".
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In 199 BC, Scipio was elected censor and became the leading man in the Senate. A lover
of Greek things, he argued during his second consulship (194 BC) that mainland Greece
should not be totally abandoned, but to no avail.
Scipio was eventually humiliated by a series of trials. The trials were politically
motivated and directed against his family; Scipio was also persecuted for his love of
Greek culture. Scipio retired from the city in 194 - 83 BC and died soon after
Scipio is important because it should the potential that Rome had to dominate the rest of
the Mediterranean.
After their defeat by the Romans, the Carthaginians were required to pay huge war
reparations, forfeit their commercial empire, and dismantle their once-powerful navy.
This did not keep them from rising up again 50 years later.
Numidia, a neighbour of Carthage, appealed to Rome for help, and Rome responded by
thoroughly defeating the city. The entire city was plundered, burned, and ploughed under
with salt -- a Roman curse of eternal sterility
EASTERN EXPANSION
In the same year that Carthage was destroyed, the Romans also took over Corinth, the last
independent Greek city-state.
There had been conflict in the Greek world since the death of Alexander the Great in 323
BC. After Alexander's death, his empire was divided into three parts, and the inheritors
of these empires squabbled amongst themselves.
Added to these squabbles were the pirates who raided between the Italian and Balkan
peninsulas, which resulted in Roman trading not being secure. Rome also became
entangled in a series of complicated dealings with the rulers of the post-Alexander
kingdoms.
This all came to a head in 147 BC when a Senatorial deputation arrived in Corinth and
was treated badly. In 146 BC, the city was attacked, razed, and its treasures plundered.
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EXPANSION AND COLONIZATION
Rome was also expanding its influence over the rest of the Italian peninsula.
The Latins, a neighbour to the south, had been given Ius Latinum (Latin Rights), which
meant they were not quite foreign and not quite Roman, but they were protected.
Eventually, the non-Roman magistrates of a town were given full-citizenship rights,
while the rest of the town's inhabitants received Latin Rights and were obliged to pay
taxes. These towns were known as municipia.
Colonies were created in strategic places were there were no inhabitants. The coloniae
were given full Roman citizenship. Most of the colonists were retired soldiers or poor
Romans who had moved to the colonies for a piece of land and the benefits of a rural
existence.
The Via Appia, or Appian Way, was the first paved road leading to Rome. Colonies
were placed all along the Via Appia.
DISSATISFACTION WITHIN THE REPUBLIC
In the same year as Attalus III died and left his kingdom of Pergamum in Asia Minor to
the Romans (133 BC), tensions between the land-owning rich and the urban, landless
poor came to a head.
An entrepreneur class had grown out of the more wealthy non-Senatorial masses. The
knights who originated this class realized that wealth and influence did not necessarily
have to come from owning land, but also could come from owning businesses, something
the Senators deemed "sordid".
The non-Roman Italians had the goal of the acquisition of Latin Rights or even full
Roman citizenship.
Tiberius Gracchus was elected in 133 BC as tribune of the people and he felt that he
knew how to solve the problems of the urban poor. Gracchus redistributed land to the
urban poor, land that had been illegally taken by the richer Romans. He also set up a
Land Commission to distribute 10 ha plots. When Gracchus announced that he would
seek re-election as tribune, it resulted in a riot instigated by the Senate. Over 300 people,
including Gracchus, were killed, however the Land Commission continued with its job.
In 123 BC, Tiberius's brother, Gaius was elected tribune. He had three groups to deal
with:
 The Senate who did not support the Land Commission
 The urban poor who wanted land but did not want more Italians to receive
Roman citizenship or Latin Rights
 The Italians who were envious of the urban poor who had received land
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Gaius tried to satisfy all parties:
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He gave a free, monthly supply of grain to the urban poor
He proposed new colonies at Capua, Taranto, and Carthage to meet the needs
of the urban poor and not irritate the Senate
He transferred control of the jury courts and awarded the lucrative business of
overseas taxation to the entrepreneur class
He gave some rights to the Italians
This resulted in all Roman citizens being offended because they feared the dilution of
their privileges among the Italians. They opposed the colonization of Carthage on
religious grounds because Carthage had been cursed with eternal sterility.
All of these actions made Gaius very unpopular, and he was declared a Public Enemy in
121 BC, which resulted in him committing suicide.
The Gracchus brothers' failures were intensified in the years to come as the gap between
rich and poor got bigger. This resulted in the demise of the Roman Republic.
THE ENFRANCHISEMENT OF ITALY
The Italians wanted a share of the privileges which they observed in the marketplaces, the
for a and comitia of the colonies and municipia.
A bitter "Social War" broke out in 90 BC and ended with the cruel suppression of the
Italians in 89 BC. The Romans then granted the citizenship to all Italians south of the Po
River. North of the Po, ordinary inhabitants were given Latin Rights and certain cities
were made full coloniae.
THE GENERALS
Two generals played a large role in the suppression of the Italians: Gaius Marius and L.
Cornelius Sulla.
Marius was a "soldier's soldier" who had fought many foreign wars, however he lacked
the diplomatic skills to turn his military accomplishments into personal gain. When Sulla
was given the command of the battle against Mithridates, Marius responded by seizing
power in Rome itself. Sulla then turned on Marius and drove him out of the city. Sulla
then left for the war against Mithridates. Marius then returned to Rome during Sulla's
absence and led a reign of terror in which he tried to kill all of his enemies. This reign of
terror ended when Marius died in 86 BC.
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When Sulla returned to Rome, he had himself appointed dictator for an indefinite period
of time and then killed off all of his real and unreal enemies. These were known as the
proscriptions. Sulla posted the names of the people he wanted killed, and then anyone
in Rome could kill him. When the person was killed, Sulla could acquire his wealth.
Sulla eventually stepped down as dictator and died in 78 BC.
THE ARMY
Gaius Marius formed the Roman citizen army. Previous to this, soldiers had been both
farmers and soldiers. They planted their crops in the spring, fought in the summer, and
then returned in the fall to harvest their crops
During Marius' time, grain had become very scarce and anyone who farmed grain was
needed in the fall to harvest the crop. At the same time, there were many people who
didn't own land who did not have to return in the fall.
Marius decided to create a professional, standing army with a fixed term of service -- 16
years in the ranks and 4 years as a veteranus. When the soldier retired, he would be given
a plot of land or money. The soldier could then get married as well.
Soldiers were given food and clothing allowances, along with their pay. These soldiers
were known as "Marius' mules" because they had to carry a certain standard minimum of
equipment when on the march. Soldiers belonged to particular units, complete with
aquila (eagle, legionary standards) and this resulted in great pride.
The legion had about 600 men, and was divided into ten cohorts of 480 men. The most
experience cohort had 960 men. Each cohort was divided into centuries of 80 men who
reported to a centurion. There were ten contubernia -- eight men sharing one tent -- to a
century.
A new recruit would start out in the most junior century of the most junior cohort of the
legion. The soldier could then work up to the rank of Primus Pilus, the centurion
commanding the first century of the first cohort.
This new arrangement allowed the legion, with its smaller divisions, to be easily
deployed. The drawback was the soldiers looked to their generals, and not the Roman
government, for their security and pensions.
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FROM POMPEY TO CAESAR
The man who had the most powerful army could overthrow the constitutional
government. This resulted in Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey), M. Licinius Crassus, and G.
Julius Caesar (Julius Caesar) coming to power. All of these men were military men who
cared nothing for the constitution. They split the government of Rome between
themselves and in 60 BC formed the First Triumvirate -- the Rule of Three Men.
Caesar controlled the armies of Northern Italy. He tried to gain military glory by taking
over southern Germany, France, Switzerland, and parts of Austria.
Crassus crushed the salve rebellion led by Spartacus, and then went off to campaign
against the Parthians in modern day Iran.
Pompey had already gained glory by clearing out the pirates in the Mediterranean and
stayed home to be flattered by the Senate.
The First Triumvirate soon broke down. Crassus was defeated and killed by the
Parthians in 53 BC. Pompey became a defender of Senatorial privilege and agreed with a
Senatorial demand in 50 BC that Caesar should disband his army. Caesar realized this
would leave him defenseless that would result in his death. Caesar then committed an
illegal act and crossed the Rubicon, the border between his area of control and Italy.
Pompey lost his defense of Rome and retreated to Alexandria in Egypt, where he was
eventually defeated and decapitated. His sons survived, only to suffer defeat at Munda in
Spain.
In 46 BC, Caesar was appointed dictator for 10 years, and in 45 BC, this was
appointment was made for life. He also became Pontifex Maximus (Chief Priest) and
became responsible for virtually all decision maing. Caesar was king, but in name. On
15 March 44 BC (the Ides of March), Julius Caesar was killed by Brutus, Cassius, and
other conspirators who opposed his virtual control of the Roman government.
GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR (100 - 44 BC)
Caesar was a brilliant general, writer, and politician.
Caesar had avoided the proscriptions by Sulla by travelling to the east on diplomatic
tasks. When he returned to Rome, he wanted to make a name for himself as a military
man. After forming the First Triumvirate, he wanted a military command that would
provide him an opportunity to equal Pompey's exploits, so he asked for the control of
northern Italy, Cisalpine Gaul, and southern Gaul outside Italy. In this area, he was able
to make a good name for himself as a military commander.
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The Senate was worried about Caesar's military power. After being appointed dictator
for life, his megalomania was perceived as a threat to the republican government. As a
result, Caesar was murdered.
Caesar was also a reformer, although his military exploits have overshadowed his
reforms.
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He abolished trade guilds that had become political, secret societies
He settled his veteran soldiers in colonies
He granted citizenship to the west
He reduced the tax burden, especially in Asia Minor
He made the Senate publish daily records, thus becoming the first daily
newspaper
He introduced on 1 January 45 BC the Julian Calendar to bring the civil year
into line with the solar year
 This calendar was used by the west until the reforms of Pope Gregory
XII in February 1582, although many eastern orthodox religions,
including Russian and Greek still adhere to this calendar
DAILY LIFE
BELIEFS
The Romans were very superstitious people who adopted the whole pantheon of the
Olympic gods of Greece and then added to it. The Romans also believed in werewolves
and all forms of magic. The Etruscan culture influenced their laying of curses, casting
spells, and telling the future. They also believed in astrology and the Zodiac
The Pontifex Maximus supervised the official religion. One of his jobs was to be in
charge of the calendar.
People placated and honoured the gods through prayer and sacrifice of animals. The
souventuarilia involved the simultaneous sacrifice of a pig, sheep, and ox.
FAMILY LIFE AND MORALITY
The Roman Republic was based on the family unit with the male Paterfamilias the head
and was endowed with potestas, legally recognized and absolute power. The
Paterfamilias had complete control over his wife, children, and slaves. He was even
allowed to abuse or kill any member of his household. The Paterfamilias was expected to
show gravitas (conservatism), dignitas (dignified status), and severitas (the ability not
to shrink from harsh justice).
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The Roman Republic was made up of families that were all linked to each other in gentes
(clans), and anything that interfered with the integrity of the family was harshly punished.
Inheritance was through the male line. Thus in order for your property to be inherited,
you had to have male children. This often resulted in adoption of males into the family.
Men were allowed to divorce their wives if they did not have male children.
Male children especially were well cared for. A newly born infant had to be recognized
by the father. The baby was laid at the father's feet and if he picked the baby up, it was
recognized as legitimate. If the baby were not recognized, it would be exposed in a
public place where another person could take the child for his own.
Girls and boys of wealthy families were brought together until puberty. Both sexes were
taught to read and write. Girls were also taught to sing, dance, spin, and weave. Boys
were given a liberal education of speaking and logical argument. There were even formal
school and universities. After a boy was finished his formal education, he was formally
led to the Forum Romanum dressed in the toga of manhood. Roman boys were
expected to pursue a career in the law courts or army.
THE ROLE OF WOMEN
Girls were educated in the home or sent to elementary school until they were married.
Once married, they were expected to have children until a male heir was produced.
Roman women had much freedom: they could go out to shop, attend to business, and
accompany their husband to dinner.
Girls were usually married by the age of 15. There were two types of marriage
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The most ancient transferred the authority the father held to the husband and
the woman remained a minor
 This marriage in manum, was conducted according to ancient rituals
 The woman was ritually sold to the groom by the father
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Usus (cohabitation) was common by the end of the Republic
 A couple stated their intention to live together in a married state
 As long as they lived together, they remained married and when they
wanted to divorce, one partner told the other partner to move his/her
belongings out
 Women were still considered the subject of their father
Women could own property and engage in business activities. Women exercised a great
deal of influence over all matters, even politics. This authority, however, declined with
the exposure to the east
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CHILDBIRTH
The main purpose of being married was to have children and a girl of fifteen could expect
a fairly rapid introduction of her responsibilities. Sometimes girls as young as twelve had
children. Women would continue to have children until a male child was born.
Augustus, the first Roman emperor, gave special privileges to those families in which the
mothers had three children.
VESTAL VIRGINS
Vestal virgins were six girls and women of high rank who were selected to tend the
sacred fire of the goddess Vesta in the heart of Rome. Each girl took a vow of virginity
for 30 years.
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The first ten years were training
The next ten years were performing duties
The last ten years were training new vestals
After 30 years, the girls were released from their vows, and could marry, though most
didn't.
If a Vestal was found to have broken her vow of virginity, she was buried alive in a
mound outside the city walls and given just enough food to survive a few days.
THE TOGA (see page 256)
The toga was the distinctive dress of the free Roman. This was an elliptical piece of cloth
about three and a half metres by about two metres at its widest point.
The colour of the cloth was different according to the status of the wearer
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A natural colour for ordinary use
Pure white for candidates standing for election to high office
Dark for a person in mourning
A broad or a narrow purple stripe along one edge according to membership in
the Senate (broad) of if a person were slightly inferior in rank (narrow)
A man had to drape his toga just right to be considered civilized. This was an awkward
garment to wear, and men began to avoid its use.
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WRITING MATERIALS
The favorite things for Romans to write on were Egyptian papyrus and parchment.
Papyrus could either form long rolls of twenty pages, which were sun-dried then glued
together, or be sold as individual pages. Only one side of the papyrus could be used.
Ink was made of several substances, including soot, resin, or excretion from squid or
cuttlefish. A clean, wet sponge was used as an eraser.
Pens could be copper alloy (bronze) instruments with nibs or sharpened reeds or goose
quills.
ART AND LITERATURE DURING THE REPUBLIC
The Romans absorbed Greek culture into their own as they expanded west.
Ennius wrote in verse and attempted to provide a year-by-year account of Rome's
developing power, known as the Annals
T. Maccius Plautus and P. Terentius Afer were two well-known writers of comedies.
There are 21 surviving plays by Plautus and 6 by Terrence. These plays influenced such
playwrights as Moliere and Shakespeare. Comedies were considered immoral, and as a
result, there was no permanent stone theatre in the city of Rome until one was built by
Pompey in 55 BC.
T. Lucretius Carus wrote On the Nature of Things, an epic poem describing his theories
on existence and ethical behaviour.
M. Tullius Cicero was a philosopher, orator, and writer. He was a defender of the
Republic and prosecuted many notable Romans, including G. Verres, governor of Sicily.
Cicero was killed by Marcus Antonius on 7 December 43 BC.
Julius Caesar was a brilliant writer who was much admired for his clarity of expression.
C. Valerius Catullus was a poet who lampooned Caesar.
EPICUREANISM
This system of philosophy was popular during the last days of the Republic and were
based on the teachings of the Greek philosopher Epicurus. The aim of Epicureans was
to reduce the feat of death and of an unknowable afterlife.
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The philosophy was based on the pursuit of happiness, pleasure, and the absence of pain.
A life free of pain could not be realized by being selfish or by abandoning traditional
virtues such as temperance and moderation
The Republic's Decline
Strong class division and indirectly, Marius' army reforms, led to factional strife and the
rise of military chiefs such as Marius and Caesar. Also, there was no social safety net, so
if you were poor, you would starve.
The Empire was only slightly better for most Romans. It began with Augustus
"restoring" the Republic, but in reality, he seized all the power for himself and became
emperor. This imperial rule would last in the West until 476 AD.