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X. Personality (6–8%) A. B. C. D. Personality Theories and Approaches Assessment Techniques Self-concept, Self-esteem Growth and Adjustment Deals with: How people handle frustration Concept of personality Tests to measure personality Personality Theories Psychodynamic Freud Trait Approach Allport’s Trait Theory Big 5 model of Personality Biological Trait Theory Social Cognitive Approach Theories Humanistic Approach Theories Assessing Personality Objective Personality Tests (questionnaires) Projective Personality Test Personality + Employee Selection Observation Basics: Each of us has a consistent behavior pattern that defines our Own personality Understanding personality we can predict how people will act. Personality is closely related to traits Can be understood by mental conflicts Is effected by learning Is effected by social situations Is effected by how people see themselves 1. Trait Theory 2. Psychodynamic Theory (Freud- 518-522-Neo Freudians) 3. Behavioristic Theory 4. Social Learning Theory 5. Humanistic Theory Personality is a lens which behavior is viewed. Personality (definition) The unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and actions; that characterize a person Consistency in personal behavior patterns Reveal individual differences Can be used to predict behavior in the future Personality is also the merging of all psychological behavior & biological processes Personality Includes: Developmental aspects Genetic & Biological Aspects Perceptual Processing Information processing Biases Emotional expression Social skills Self Monitoring Process of regulating behavior through controlling personal behavior we display Shyness= public self-consciousness Personality factors: Who you are 1 How you think How you think, behave, express feelings… all of this.” Personality: “A person’s unique pattern of thinking, emotions, behavior. Refers to consistency in who you are have been and will become.” Blend of talent values hopes, loves hates, and habits… Personality is not characterCharacter is a term of evaluation Friendly, outgoing, honest with moral values Personality is not temperament Temperament has hereditary aspects: sensitivity, irritability, distractibility, typical moods. 510Traits: Sociable, orderly, intelligent, shy sensitive, creative Personality traits Are stable qualities that a person show in most situations Are inferred from behavior Describe personality Reflect thoughts and feelings Actions that are most typical Reflect people’s needs “The inclinations or tendencies that help to direct how a person usually thinks and behaves.” Stable personality traits are manifested by age 30 Basic Assumptions: Traits are stable and predictable over time Traits are stable across situations Personality Types = people who have several traits in common Categories- popular = athletic, motherly Carl Jung- and Traits Said people are introverts or extroverts Introverts Extroverts Shy Conscientiousness Egocentric Bold outgoing Attention is focused inward Attention directed outward 2 Self Concept: Consists of all your ideas Perceptions + feelings about who you are Guides our behavior Problems can arise with inadequate or inaccurate self concept Self Esteem Rises with success Low self esteem- negative self evaluation Insecure, lacking in confidence, self critical High Self Esteem Confident, proud, self respecting Genuine Self Esteem is accurate appraisal of strengths + weaknesses Arrogance is problematic Personality Theories: Are frameworks to understand personality A theory is a system of concepts, assumptions, ideas, and principles proposed to explain personality. 5 Major Personality Theories: Trait Theories: Purpose is to learn what traits makeup personality + how they relate to actual behavior Psycho dynamic Theories Focuses on inner workings of personality especially internal conflicts & struggles Behavioristic Effect of conditioning + learning Effects of external environment Social Learning Theories Attribute differences in personality to socialization expectations and mental processes Humanistic Focuses on private subjective experience and personal growth 3 Trait Theories: Personality traits Are stable qualities that a person show in most situations Are inferred from behavior Describe personality Reflect thoughts and feelings Actions that are most typical Reflect people’s needs “The inclinations or tendencies that help to direct how a person usually thinks and behaves.” Stable personality traits are manifested by age 30 Basic Assumptions: Traits are stable and predictable over time Traits are stable across situations Purpose is to learn what traits makeup personality + how they relate to actual behavior Trait = stable + enduring qualities that a person shows in most situations. To be considered a personality trait it must be typical of your behavior Introverts and extroverts are examples trait knowledge Allows us to predict behavior Trait Theorists- attempt to analyze, classify, and interrelate traits… 4 traits identified by the Ancient Greeks Hippocrites Introverted + Extroverted (emotionally stable and emotionally unstable) Melancholic Sad Gloomy Choleric Hot-tempered Irritable Phlegmatic Sluggish Calm Sanguine Cheerful Hopeful Trait Theories consider the strength of many personality characteristics 4 Allport Gordon Allport (1961) I defined different kinds of traits Common traits = characteristics- shared by most members of a culture Tell us similarities – in a culture Individual traits = defines a person of unique qualities. Cardinal Traits Basic traits, easily visible or traceable to a person’s activities Few people have cardinal traits Central Traits *** Basic building blocks of personality Small # of traits (7) tell clear story of personality Obvious to everyone Used to control and organize behavior in many different situations What can be expected most of the time Reliable Secondary Traits Less consistent Specific to situation Control less behavior Superficial aspects o Food preferences o Attitudes o Political opinion o Musical tastes Raymond Cattell Wanted to know how traits were interlinked Used surveys, personal ratings on trait descriptive terms Found Surface Traits Make up visible areas of personality Found Source Traits Source traits are surface traits that occur in clusters That appear often Seen as a basic traits Used statistics Called factor analysis (a mathematical analysis) to define source traits With factor analysis psychologists correlate patterns associated with traits (clusters of traits) Found 16 source traits All are needed to fully describe a personality called “16 Personality Factor Questionnaire” (16PF) Shy vs. Bold Trust vs. Suspicion Relaxed vs. Tense Used to create a trait profile The profile is a graph of a scores based on traits Take the Test: http://personalitytesting.info/tests/16PF.php 5 Cattell 16PF Questionnaire http://personality-testing.info/tests/16PF.php 6 7 The Big 5 = 5 Factor Model (Costa and McRae) The test http://compatibility.hearts2.com/questions~testing-big-5-ffmpersonality-assessment-long-version~t-27.html Which is Cattell’s (16PF) reduced to 5 universal dimensions 1. Extroversion 2. Agreeableness 3. Conscientiousness 4. Neuroticism 5. Openness to experience Can predict how people will act in various circumstances (Any trait you can name will be tied to one factor or another) Also used to compare personalities 1. How Extroverted or Introverted 2. Agreeable = How friendly, nurturing, caring vs. cold, indifferent, self centered, spiteful 3. Conscientious = How self disciplined, responsible, and achieving Vs. Irresponsible, careless, undependable 4. Neuroticism = How negative, upsetting emotions/ high N = anxious, emotionally “sour” irritable and unhappy. 5. Openness to Experience = how open to experience are you? Cool link to Chart of personality research: http://www.personalityresearch.org/bigfive/costa.html Traits and Situations Which is more important, Personality Traits or External Circumstances? Both are important Situations influence behavior Personality traits are consistent + can predict behavior Traits interact with situations to determine how we act. Situations influence the expression of personality as settings change. 8 Biological Trait Theory: Hans Eysenck 1960s Why do some people have certain traits and other not? Eysenck: Used Factor Analysis also Said: Most people’s traits could be described using 2 main dimensions: Introversion/Extraversion and Emotionality/Stability (neuroticism) 1. Introversion/Extraversion Extroverts are sociable, outgoing, like parties, group activities, take risks, like excitement and change Introverts tend to be: Quiet, thoughtful, reserved, solitary pursuits, avoid social involvement 2. Emotionality/Stability Emotionality: Moodiness, restlessness, worry, anxiety Stability: Calm, even tempered, relaxed, emotionally stable 9 Eysenck said, there are degrees of emotionality/stability and introversion/extraversion Trait patterns can be seen and are predictable Bio-connection- inherited differences in nervous system are factorsBrain differences Biological differences in: Level of arousal Sensitivity to stress Sensitivity to environmental stimulation “People who inherit a nervous system that normally operates below their optimum arousal level will always be on the lookout for excitement change social contact in order to increase arousal=extroverted Conversely- people who are regularly over aroused will avoid excitement to reduce to a more optimal arousal… Gray’s Approach Inhibition Theory: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray's_biopsychological_theory_of_personality Biological Factors 2 basics (agrees with Eysenck) Introvert + Extrovert Stable + Emotional Said differences occur because systems in brain function differently Behavioral Approach System (BAS) Brain regions that affect people’s sensitivity to rewards + motivation to seek rewards The “Go” system, responsible for impulsivity or how uninhibited a person is. BAS- people tend to experience positive emotions, Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) Brain regions affects sensitivity to potential punishment and motivation to avoidance of punishment. The “Stop” system Associated with negative emotions Extraverts = BAS is sensitive to reward Bas is insensitive Introverts = BAS insensitive… BIS- sensitive 10 Emotionally unstable- sensitive to rewards and punishments 11 Do We Inherit Personality? Behavioral Genetics- study of inherited behavioral traits In humans we rely on Twin Studies Things influenced by heredity Intelligence Some mental disorders Temperament and other qualities 12 Page 524 Learning Theories of Personality Behavioralists reject trait theories Say personality is a collection of learned behavior patterns. Learning, reinforcement, imitation People learn kindness, hostility, generosity, destructiveness Classical and operant conditioning Observational Learning Reinforcement Extinction Generalization Discrimination There are situational implications on behavior Situational Determinants = external causes of actions Situations interact with a person’s background (prior learning) Trait theory says situations interact with traits vs. behaviorists say situations interact with prior learning. Dollard and Miller Theory (Behavioralists) Habits = learned behavior patterns = structure of personality Habits are governed by 4 elements 1. Drive = stimulus strong enough to produce action 2. Cue = signals from environment 3. Response = action to get 4. Reward = positive reinforcement Bernstein: The Social Cognitive Approach (AKA Social Learning Theory) Theories look at conscious thoughts and emotions for clues to how people are different. Based on animal and human learning SCA sees Personality as consisting mainly of thoughts and actions we learn through observing and interacting with others. SCA have their roots in behaviorism: John B. Watson- Classical Conditioning B.F. Skinner- Operant Conditioning Used Functional Analysis13 “Skinner tried to understand behavior in terms of the “Function It Serves” in obtaining rewards or avoiding punishment. Functional AnalysisSummarizes what people find rewarding What they are capable of doing What skills they lack Social Cognitive add to and seek to understand how learned patterns of thought and feelings contribute to behavior. Theorist: Rotter Bandura Mischel Rotter Expectancy Theory: 1982 Learning creates cognitions known as Expectancies that guide behavior… Said a person makes decisions based on: 1. What the person expects to happen following a behavior 2. The value of the outcome Behavior is determined by positive reinforcement and expectation of the consequence. Rotter also studied Locus of Control: what controls life’s rewards Pg. 568 Internals and Externals Internals: Internal Locus of Control People who believe/expect events to be controlled by their own efforts Externals: External Locus of Control Are more inclined to expect events to be determined by external forces which they have no control over 14 Bandura: Reciprocal Determinism: “Saw personality as shaped by the ways in which thoughts, behaviors, and the environment interact and influence one another.” People can learn through observation or direct rewards. Change in the environment effects thinking effects behavior = Reciprocal Determinism Reciprocal Determinism: Says Personal Factors (cognitions) Behavior Environment Are constantly affecting one another Hostile thoughts Hostile behavior leads to more hostile thoughts… Self Efficacy: Learned expectation of success What we do What we try to do Is all controlled by our perception and beliefs about our chances of success. The higher self-efficacy = the greater our actual accomplishments Lower Self Efficacy= low self-esteem etc… Beliefs influence our behavior Environment can impact behavior Mischel’s Cognitive Affective Theory: Social-Cognitive Theorist Say that learned beliefs, feelings, and expectancies make us different. Mischel Call these: Cognitive Person Variables To predict behavior CAT looks at A. Cognitive Person Variables B. Features of the Situation Both interact to produce behavior CAT has If-Then applications- if a person encounters this situation then they will engage in this typical behavior… (called Behavior Signatures) very similar to trait theory 15 difference is the added situation… Mischel sees more importance in the role of the situation. Variables make people different and found main categories 1. “Encodings” -are beliefs about environment and other people 2. “Expectancies”A. What a person’s expects to follow from behaviors B. What a person believes he is capable of doing 3. “Affects” – Feelings/Emotions and Affective Responses 4. “Goals/Values” 5. “Competencies/Self Regulating” Thoughts and actions a person is capable of Ability to engage in planned, self-controlled behavior 526 Social Learning Theory (Cognitive Behavioralism) (mental events used to explain personality) Include perception, thinking, Expectations, and other mental events social relationships, modeling Theories of Juilia Rotter 1. Psychological Situation- how a person interprets or defines a situation These are really interpretations of an event/situation These interpretations are key to how we respond 2. Expectancy- refers to your (thoughtful) anticipation that your response will lead to reinforcement Expected reinforcement is key 3. Reinforcement Value – we attach subjective value to various activities or rewards. Self Efficacy (social learning theory) (Bandura argued) Is the ability to control you own life “a capacity for producing a desired result.” Efficacy beliefs (shape our behavior) Self-Reinforcement (Social learning theory) (impact of High Self-Esteem) Praising + rewarding yourself for having made a success Adds to Behavioristic view Habits of self praise or self blame important in personality Self Reinforcement =greater happiness and life satisfaction 527 16 Personality Development and Learning Theorists What makes early learning experiences so lasting in their effects? The core of personality is shaped in early stages Social reinforcement- based on praise, attention, approval (impacts personality) Miller and Dollard Said 4 Critical Situations can have lasting impact on personality. 1. Feeding2. Toilet or cleanliness training 3. Sex Training 4. Learning to express Anger and Aggression 1. Feeding- children active Active or passive orientation of the world may be learned Example of feeding Active reinforcement—children fed when they cry (manipulate parents) Passive reinforcement—children allowed to cry without being fed= passive Could impact social relationships- could associate people with pleasure or discomfort 2. Toilet + Cleanliness Training could be source of emotion Frustration can have undesirable effects Needs patience 3. Sex + Anger Permissiveness in sexual and aggressive behavior linked to adult needs for power Gender Development= Sex appropriate behavior is learned Identification and Imitation are important to personality Identification= a child’s emotional attachment to admired adults encourages imitation Attention of any kind reinforces childrens behavior Boys encouraged to be aggressive, loud, boisterous Girls- encouraged to be- submissive dependent, passive Problem when parents are rejecting, punishing, sarcastic, humiliating, neglectful, their children, become hostileHostile personality causes- unresponsive, unstable, dependent, impaired selfesteem When parents are accepting and affectionate Children develop sociable, positive, emotionally stable, high self esteem Personality Research: 17 Focused on understanding origins causes of similarity and differences among people: 1. In their patterns of thinking 2. Emotions 3. Behavior Personality Assessments in Hiring TestsIntegrity Tests (screening) Test impulsivity Test disruptive behavior Try to predict likelihood of undesirable characteristics A scale – is the maladaptive behavior likely or not Looking for clues to personality Heredity appears to be responsible for about 25-50% of the variation in many personality traits. 18 Psychodynamic = Freudian (humans are driven by unconscious desires = impulse gratification…) Freud Influential Comprehensive Influenced modern thinking, literature, sociology, anthropologyShaped psycho-therapy techniques Some ideas supported by Cognitive research- example- defense mechanisms are present in research. Evidence that people’s thoughts and actions are influenced by unrecalled events and experiences Criticism: Theories based on case studies (few individuals, conclusions may not apply to people in general, narrow sample, upper-class Viennese women, culture impacted ig sex) Western European values reflected Biases male and female interpretations Poor research- leading questions (false memories (implanted) Not scientific View of Personality: Each person’s personality is shaped by the number, nature and outcome of these conflicts. (Id, ego, superego) 19 Unconscious processes make up personality. Personality develops as we satisfy or urges. Identified 3 parts to Personality Id Ego Superego Id: First to develop in infancy 2 kinds of instincts- Eros- positive Thanatos – Death and aggression 20 Libido- psychic energy concept Works off the Pleasure Principle Relentless in nature Pushes for immediate satisfaction Ego: Develops second in infancy Derived from Id Based on Reality Principle Superego: Rules of society Moral guide Relentless Unreasonable Parents and the social/moral world Psycho-sexual Stages Said the personality develops as the human progresses or fails progress through stages Failure to resolve problems or conflicts in certain stage leaves fixations 5 stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital Fixation: Being unconsciously pre-occupied with areas of pleasure associated with the stage Fixations come out in adult personality characteristics 5stages of Freudian Development: 1. Oral: 1st year Center of pleasure is oral Adult personality indications- not enough sucking results in overeating, sarcasm, or and smoking 2. Anal: 2nd year of life Center of pleasure is elimination of waste Toilet Training Paternal demands Adult personality indicators- stinginess, excessive neatness, disorganized, impulsive… 3. Phallic: 3-5 years Center of pleasure is genital area Superego begins to develop Oedipus Complex: Feelings begin to be repressed Boy falls in love with mother 21 Father is the rival of mother’s attention, boy wants to eliminate father Boy feels father will castrate him over rivalry for mother, causes boy to try to ingratiate to father and boy identifies with father, to be like father Electra Complex: Girls desire father Penis Envy- grils don’t have one, want one for power purposes Girls also feel the rivalry and create attachment to mother, identify with mother Girls imitate mother, forms basis of her Super Ego Adult personality indicators- difficulty with authority figures, Inability to maintain stable love relationship 4. Latency Period Through childhood Sexual impulses stay in background 5. Genital Adolescents through adulthood Primary area of pleasure Neo-Freudians: Karl Jung Identified Libido- as life force, includes creativity No stage theory Personality components Introversion- inner reflection Extroversion- social world focus Collective Unconscious Inherited memories Responsible for our innate tendencies to react to certain things Adler Development of personality comes from an innate desire to overcome infantile feelings of helplessness and to gain some control over the environment Striving for superiority Drive for fulfillment as a person Erikson People’s personalities are shaped by those around them Social needs become primary influence on personality Social needs Feeling protected Feeling secure Feeling accepted Identity Crisis 22 Said strategies people use to meet social needs become central parts of personality Horney Feminist Neo-Freudian Rejected Penis Envy Said men envy women Men have Womb Envy Said culture plays a role in personality Contemporary Psychodynamic Theory: Says personality is based on how perception of themselves and others influence their view of reactions and to the world. Example- attachment to care givers influences personality development Relationships shape a person’s thoughts and feelings about relationships later in adult life… Secure and Insecure Attachment: Impact personality Affect identity Social relationships Self-image Feelings of security Insecure Attachment (personality indications) Increased physiological responses to interpersonal conflict Less likely to be helpful when people are in distress May have relationship problems… 23 Defense Mechanisms: deflect (avoid) anxiety or guilt in the short run, but they sap energy. List some incidents in which you or someone you know might have used each of the defenses described. How can you tell if these are unconscious defense mechanisms or actions motivated by conscious intentions? Defenses MechanismsFreud said ego’s primary function is to prevent the anxiety or guilt we would feel if we became aware of our socially unacceptable id impulses or if we thought about violating the superego’s rules. Ego might use unconscious tactics that protect against anxiety and guilt by either preventing threatening material from surfacing or disguising it when it does. 1. Repression Unconsciously pushing threatening memories, urges, or ideas from conscious awareness; A person may experience loss of memory, for unpleasant events. 2. Rationalization a. Attempt to make actions or mistakes seem reasonable: b. The reasons or excuses given (e.g. “I spank my children because it is good for them”) sound rational, but they are not the real reasons for the behavior.”) 3. Projection a. Unconsciously attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or impulses to another person: b. Instead of recognizing that “I hate him,” a person my feel that “He hates me.” 4. Reaction Formation a. Defending against unacceptable impulses by acting opposite to them: b. Sexual interest in a married co-worker might appear as a strong dislike instead. 5. Sublimation a. Converting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions, and perhaps symbolically expressing them; energy, episodic b. Sexual or aggressive desires may appear as artistic creativity or devotion to athletic excellence. 6. Displacement a. Deflection an impulse from its original target to a less threatening one: b. Anger at one’s boss may be expressed through hostility toward a clerk, a family member, or even a pet. 24 7. Denial a. Simply discounting the existence of threatening impulses: b. A person may vehemently deny ever having had even the slightest degree of physical attraction to a person of the same sex. 8. Compensation a. Striving to make up for unconscious impulses or fears, (inferiority, physical sense) b. A business executive’s extreme competiveness might be aimed at compensating for un-conscious feelings of inferiority. Assessing Personality Describing personality and diagnosing psychological disorders, predicting dangerousness, selecting employees… - psychologists use four main sources: Life Outcomes- education, income, or marital status Situational Tests- laboratory measurements of behavioral, emotional, and physiological reactions to conflict, frustration… Observer Ratings- judgments about a person made by family or friends Self Reports- responses to interviews and personality (interviews) Open-ended- questions are tailored to intellectual level, emotional state, Structured- interviewer asks fixed questions about specific topics, in order Tests must be Reliable (Reliability) how stable/consistent the results are and Valid (Validity) the degree to which test scores are interpreted appropriately and used properly in making inferences about people Tests are either Objective or Projective Objective tests- clearly worded items relating to the individual being assessed; Self report tests Scores compared with group norms Scores indicate conclusions about personality Compared to others = average score of others = norms Examples- traits, or a set of related traits, NEO-PI-R Neuroticism Openness Personality Inventory (revised) Measures Big 5 Personality Traits (Costa and Mcrae Can be either (private) self responses or ratings by (public) another person (Marriage counseling for spouses with drastic differences) Very Reliable Can be used in prediction of future behavior Example likelihood of criminal behavior 25 MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Diagnose psych disorders MMPI-2 Clinical scales Respondents scores are compared to others who have been previously diagnosed Ex. Levels of OCD Objective test Computer statistic analysis Focuses on overall pattern (indications) Projective Personality Test (problem in analysis, reliability) Unstructured stimuli- which can be perceived in many ways Psychodynamic tests- reveal unconscious needs, motives, fantasies, conflicts, thoughts (hidden or unconscious) Used with clinical psychology to assess psychological disorders Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) Measures need for achievement, need for power, need for affiliation… Rorschach Inkblot Test Measure aggressive and sexual impulses that people otherwise might be able to hide 26