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SOCIOLOGY 1301 TOPICS/CHAPTERS (L&B) COVERED BY LECTURES (1-4) The Sociological Perspective (Section 1)—an introduction including topics, development, theoretical perspectives and uses NOTES: The Research Process (Section 2)—steps in the process, research design (ethics) NOTES: Culture (Section 3)—culture and society, symbols, change, theory, diversity NOTES: Social Structure (Section 4)—status and role, social groups, larger social structures, evolution of societies NOTES: Socialization and Social Interaction (Section 5)—Theory, soci. and psyc., agents of socialization, Theory (interaction), nonverbal communication NOTES: Deviant Behavior (Section 6)—Deviance, 4 questions (Who, What—functions, why, What— reactions) NOTES: Economic Stratification (Section 7)—legitimating st., systems of st., explaining, global NOTES: Racial and Ethnic Minorities (Section 8)—race-ethnicity-minorities, prejudice-discriminationracism, theory, minority-dominant relations, immigration NOTES: Gender (Section 9)—Theory (roles), Global (women and dev.), social institutions, reducing stratification, gendered media messages NOTES: Religion (Section 10)—Theory, beliefs and organizations, world religions and social change NOTES: The Political Economy (Section 11)—power/authority, theory, contemporary, distribution of power, current trends NOTES: Social Change, Globalization and Development (Section 12)—What is, sources, theory, transformation, devoloped/developing world NOTES: HCC Sociology 1301 LectureNotes (Introduction to Sociology) THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE--Section 1 I. II. What is Sociology? A) Sociology defined 1) Lindsey and Beach suggest that Sociology is the scientific study of human social behavior a) It assumes that social factors rather than biological or psychological ones are useful in explaining regularities in social life b) Its focus is on collectivities (groups, organizations, whole societies etc.) rather than individuals c) What makes sociology distinctive is its perspective or the way in which it interprets human behavior rather than specific subject matter d) Sociology views individuals and society as mutually influencing each other 2) The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology suggests that Sociology is “the study of social life and behavior, especially in relation to social systems, how they work, how they change, the consequences they produce and their complex relation to people’s lives” (299) 3) Farganis claims that Auguste Comte originated the term “sociology” in 1822 (or 1839 in Brinkerhof and White) to connote the systematic study of society (1) 4) One of the main goals of a sociology class is to develop what is known as the “sociological imagination” a) The “sociological imagination” refers to being able both participate in social life and to step back and analyze the broader meanings of what is going on b) This idea is attributed to C. Wright Mills circa 1959—1916-1964 (Collins and Makowsky 160) 1. Collins & Makowsky claim that C. Wright Mills was a controversial motorcycle riding sociologist from Columbia University ( 2. He was seen as a big burly Texan so full of energy that he even wrote standing up c) Brinkerhof and White claim that the sociological imagination is about putting personal troubles such as poverty, divorce or loss of faith that may be beyond our control into a larger social context where they can be seen as public issues (4) d) These issues are rooted in society as a whole, its historical development and the way it is organized (its social structure) 1. An example is when a man is unemployed it may be a “personal trouble” related to job skills. However, when in a nation of 50 million 15 million are unemployed then it is an issue and the solution lies not with one man, but with the political and economic institutions of a society The Sociological Perspective A) Sociology as a science 1) Sociology employs the scientific method and encourages people to debunk or be skeptical of many conventional explanations of social life 2) Science is rooted in the collection and analysis of empirical evidence or data derived from observation and experience and not from intuition, conjecture, or hearsay 3) Scientists study a number individual cases and these findings are extrapolated through the process of generalization to apply to many different specific cases 4) Causality vs. Correlation a) Lindsey and Beach argue that sociologists assume that causal factors exist (normally social ones) that can explain why things are as they are b) However, causality is difficult if not almost impossible to find so correlations are often examined instead 1. a correlation in simplest terms refers to things that relate to one another a. a positive correlation refers to things that vary in the same direction b. a negative correlation means that things vary in the opposite directions 5) Lindsey and Beach note that “in sociology, as in all science, a theory is an explanation of the relationship among specific facts” (6) a) They claim that theories must always be testable and subject to possible refutation 6) Blackwell claims that it is implied in a theory that there are a set of underlying assumptions and methods that are rarely questioned a) My view is that a theory is a plausible explanation, but that in the social sciences it could be erroneous 7) An example of the interplay of research and theory in sociology is a study by Emile Durkheim on suicide a) Durkheim discovered that social integration or higher levels of sustained involvement with other people lessened the chances for suicide b) It should be noted that this refers to collective behavior and is not an indicator of what any given individual will do 1. This idea of automatically applying group data to particular individuals is known as the ecological fallacy (7) 2. Social theories are essentially probabilistic meaning that they predict likely outcomes, but not absolute outcomes (Glass 3/4s full and ¼ empty-or half and half i.e. glass half full or empty—it is both 8) Debunking—noted earlier—refers to a habit of looking at both the obvious surface level & at the less obvious deeper one for explanations of social behavior a) This idea is a bit cynical, but it is ultimately a search for the truth (not capital “T”) b) The individuals most likely to question these issues are those who experience social marginality c) Social marginality refers to those who are to a certain extent excluded through no fault of their own from mainstream society 9) In terms of diversity modern sociology suggests that many societies are moving toward multiculturalism a) this is the idea that different groups of people should be able to live side by side without one dominating the others or any single group having to abandon its heritage b) Parrillo suggests that it ranges from efforts for an all inclusive curriculum to an emphasis on separatist pluralism (550) c) Pluralism refers to the idea that minorities can maintain their distinctive subcultures and at the same time interact with relative equality within the larger society d) This multicultural movement is only occurring to a large extent in the U.S. (Blackwell 202) e) It is being criticized by some Conservatives as a devaluation of core values and wisdom traced to Western Civilization f) Others argue that it masks an underlying inequality of wealth and power that it does little to remedy 10) Globalization (Blackwell 135) is the process in which social life within societies is increasingly affected by international influences based on everything from political and trade ties to shared music, clothing styles and mass media a) religious fundamentalism is a key response to this inputting of alien cultures or globalization (a non-acceptance of global cultural ideas) b) Lindsey and Beach note that a global culture is beginning to emerge and that English is becoming a Universal language c) My argument is that while Western Civilization is inputting a lion’s share of the information that other cultural sources may be extremely influential in certain context 1. Japanese cartoons in the U.S. 2. Telenovellas in the People’s Republic China d) Some good points are that it offers greater cultural understandings and creates hybrid cultures (i.e. “new cultures”) e) Some bad points are that it can change traditional culture and indirectly attack religious beliefs f) However, these good and bad points are actually subjective III. Major topics of sociological interest A) Most sociological research can be categorized into 4 very general areas 1) Socialization or the lifelong process where we learn our culture (10) 2) Social stratification or when people are divided into distinct social categories (class, ethnicity etc.) and that membership in these categories offers some people better opportunities than others a) social stratification is not usually maintained by force or coercion, but through the more advantaged socializing everyone to accept a belief system or ideology that legitimates existing patterns of structured social inequality (order) 3) Social institutions are a predictable established way to provide for one or more of society’s basic needs a) an example is the family 4) Social change—sociology is often about proposing or opposing social change B) Sociohistorical context 1) 4 key developments led to the birth of sociology a) Scientific ways of investigating the natural world began to gain greater acceptance despite the hostility of the church b) The idea spread that the human condition could and should be improved through the application of reason c) The Industrial Revolution led to many peasants leaving the countryside to swell the size of the cities causing social problems (ex. Poverty) to arise d) The expansion of colonialism and subsequent contact with non-European peoples increased sociologists awareness of diversity and globalization C) European origins of sociology 1) sociology arose during the latter half of the 19 th century or circa 1850 (according to Lindsey and Beach) 2) However, Kornblum (7) notes that like all sciences sociology developed out of prescientific longings to understand and predict (this arose from earlier Greek philosophers) 3) Kornblum claims that the roots of modern sociology started among the philosophers and scientists of the Enlightenment that itself originated in scientific discoveries of the 1600s (17th century) 4) The Enlightenment itself may have arisen out explorations in the 1500s where many merchants, seafarers and military individuals were exposed to new cultures in foreign lands a) This exposure led to writings about these cultures that became popular in 1600s Europe and may have prompted the interest and inquiries that later developed into the social sciences 5) The field first developed in France, Germany and England 6) France a) Auguste Comte coined the term sociology and is considered the founder of Sociology 1. Comte was among the first to suggest that the scientific method could be used to examine social events 2. He used the term “positivism” to argue that social behavior could be observed and measured scientifically and that once the laws of social behavior were learned he believed scientists could accurately predict or possibly control events 3. Positivism is also rooted in a theory of intellectual development composed of 3 stages analogous to a life span from infant to adulthood a. Theological-sees supernatural beings as the ultimate cause of all that happens in human life. Priests and military rule society b. Metaphysical-the human mind creates abstract forces to account for phenomena in the real world. Clergy and Lawyers rule society c. Positive-the mind is freed from abstractions and the mind seeks social development using observation of facts, historical comparisons and if possible controlled experimentation. Dominated by industrialists and scientists 4. Comte also formed a religion of humanity with himself as high priest and referred to society as the “Great Being” 5. He created a calendar with days of devotion for scientists, saints, poets and philosophers and planned for a council organized under the high priest of humanity to rule the world benevolently through positivism b) Emile Durkheim notable for his work with anomie (normlessness) or a general decline in the strength of the rules that guide people in deciding how they should behave in a society 1. Durkheim’s main concern was with instability, decadence and violence 2. He also claimed that society is based on a common moral order (collective conscious) rather than on rational self-interest (as in Rousseau’s and Thomas Hobbes’ “social contract” (Collins etc 104)---{trans. Game theory a rational individual will never live up to a contract since the rational choice is to cheat) c) Karl Marx is important for his role as a conflict theorist 1. Marx also emphasized economics as a shaper of social life 2. He made 2 key contributions to sociology: economic determinism & the dialectic (similar to the Socratic dialectic, but specific) {dialectic transparency} a. In economic determinism the modes of production (the basic task is finding food and shelter) are the foundation for political and social arrangements 1 he sees the family structure, law and religion as developing after the economic structures (economics determines the form of these groups) b. The dialectic views change as the product of contradictions and conflicts between parts of society d) Max Weber is notable for his work with rationalization, legitimacy, verstehen, ideal types, value free science, the Protestant work ethic and its linkages to capitalism and bureaucracy 1. verstehen—refers to an empathetic understanding of what people’s subjective meanings are 2. ideal types are conventions used decompose larger complex ideas into smaller ones that are easier to work with, but do not really exist by themselves (Collins 123) a. Example: Socialism and Capitalism can be seen as ideals, but they do not really exist independently outside of the ideal notion 3. Weber argued for value free science or that sociology should only be concerned with what is and should avoid making conclusions of what ought to be e) Herbert Spencer is noted for the phrase “survival of the fittest” and Social Darwinism 1. Social Darwinism refers to the development of societies resembling natural evolution with competition among various groups (racial, ethnic, class) 2. This competition leads to victory by the more fit over the less fit (the wealthy are more fit than the poor (this has little credibility among sociologists) (Blackwell 288) f) Harriet Martineau is thought to be the first woman to contribute to the field of sociology and translated Comte’s works into English D) Sociology in the U.S. 1) William Graham Sumner, a Social Darwinist, taught the first sociology class in the U.S. at Yale in 1876 2) However, the first department of sociology was established at the University of Chicago in 1892 3) During the late 1920s the U.S. became the World leader in sociology. 4) The two great centers of American research were Columbia University and the University of Chicago both using distinctive approaches a) Columbia and the East coast schools tended to be similar to the European school of thought that used macro-level analysis of social structure and change (funct or conf.) IV. b) The University of Chicago tended to influence thought at many other Universities especially in the Midwest, South and West c) The University of Chicago sociologists saw their city as a vast laboratory where social issues could be examined d) Park and Burgess named their methodology for examining conditions urban ecology (human ecology in Kornblum) e) Urban ecology is defined by Blackwell (677) as the idea that urban growth can be examined by focusing on social categories of people who differ in characteristics such as ethnicity, social class and race (metaphorically different species in an ecosystem) and who adapt and/or compete with each other f) When cities develop, factories or businesses attract certain types of workers who then adapt to their surroundings and form neighborhoods with certain classes or ethnicities 1. The location of these communities depends on their proximity to employment opportunities 2. As businesses and factories move to different locations or new immigrants arrive residential patterns may change in response to this in a process called ecological succession 5) In the 1940s and 1950s the sociology in the U.S. moved away from the reformist (social reform) perspective and toward empiricism 6) In the 1990s Sociology began to move from empiricism back to social reform Theoretical perspectives in Sociology A) Functionalism 1) Functionalism is a macrosociological (large scale phenomena) theoretical perspective that was popular during the middle of the 20th century and is still important today {TRANS.} 2) Lindsey and Beach claim that “functionalism interprets all social groups regardless of size…as systems whose parts are interdependent so that a change in one element necessarily leads to changes in every other element” a) social groups can be compared to organs in a body (the organic analogy) with each dependent on the other 3) There can be manifest and latent functions a) manifest functions in terms of a social system are the obvious functions that we openly intend it to perform b) latent functions are the unintended or unrecognized functions that a social system provides 4) Critics of functionalism claim that harmony is over emphasized 5) Classic functionalism asserts that social systems remain largely unchanged as long as their parts work properly, a state called equilibrium (18) 6) The system can also be disrupted or not run smoothly. This is known as a dysfunction 7) The functional perspective suggests that people in a normally functioning social system will share a number of values that hold society together a) How would a functionalist view a multicultural society? B) Conflict Theory 1) Conflict theory is also a macrosocial perspective 2) The conflict perspective suggests that society is an arena where different groups struggle with each other over scarce resources such as property, prestige and power 3) This theory tends to ignore harmonious interaction (discuss idea of becoming involved— activism) C) Symbolic Interactionism 1) This is a microsocial perspective 2) Symbolic Interactionism examines specific cases of how individual people behave in particular face to face social settings 3) larger social structures are nothing more than creations of interacting people 4) Macrosociologists in a critique see difficulty with changing long established social arrangements suggesting that these arrangements achieve a life of their own (not an interacting construct) D) The feminist perspective and androcentric (male) bias 1) The feminist perspective is about unequal power relations 2) The idea of structured social inequality is justified by ideologies that may be accepted by both the privileged and the oppressed 3) The key condemnation of this perspective is that it allows for the establishment of bias (Stephen and the idea of propaganda & reflexive ethnography) 4) Some feminists argue that the demand for scientific objectivity is often hiding male bias (men are often seen as more objective than women) Sociology 1301 (Introduction to Sociology) THE RESEARCH PROCESS--Section 2 I. II. Research and the science of Sociology A) The main focus of sociology is on social scientific research or the studying of people for the purposes of testing and building theories to explain social behavior B) The scientific method is used to insure the accuracy and usefulness of the data 1) The scientific method can be defined as a systematic procedure for acquiring knowledge that relies on empirical evidence--that derived from observation and experience (Lindsey and Beach 30) 2) Scientific research should ideally be objective or neutral and unbiased a) However, as has been noted before androcentric (male) bias or possibly gynocentric (female) bias can exist when the feminist perspective is used b) Ideologies such as Socialism and Marxism or even “religious” beliefs such as atheism or Christianity can be inserted into research c) The truth is that we all have biases, but that the ideal to pursue when researching is objectivity (and this is not true of all social scientists) d) There are others such as Dr. Stephen that suggest that we should report only what those being interviewed want us to report, which is less than the whole truth and in some cases may be little more than propaganda e) It is also notable that the materials from which research is being drawn may be biased (P.R.C. research materials) f) Interpretation of data can also be misleading (Cokie Roberts and whether enough was being done to Bill Clinton pro con and neutral) 3) Lindsey and Beach argue that the scientific method helps to protect science from errors in human judgement in 2 important ways a) the scientific method including the knowledge generated by using the method is basically self correcting (31) 1. The method should be reproducible i.e. researchers who examine similar questions should arrive at similar answers 2. However, this is again an ideal when dealing with people because people may not be asked the right questions, issues may be too complex etc. b) The second way science deals with errors in judgment is that research is carried out under fairly strict ethical guidelines especially where human subjects are concerned 1. Again, this is subjective since guidelines for study can vary by individual, nation etc. 2. Essentially the question that should be asked is whose ethics are being applied in a given situation Steps in the Research Process A) Dr. Bernard makes 2 claims about research Noone is expert in all methods of research Research is a craft or a skill that is learned through practice B) These items are common to all research projects Formulating the problem Lindsey and Beach suggest that the formulation of the problem is based on filling in gaps in present knowledge I would also argue that repeats of potentially “Ideological” studies are also valid It is noted that some exploration of past research should be done before formulating a research question Review the literature This involves the examination of academic journals and texts if available It should be noted that there may not be any academic writings about certain issues, therefore, newspapers or other relatively authoritative materials may be used The literature can provide a conceptual framework that summarizes information about the research and integrates important concepts this framework should expose gaps in knowledge However, Lindsey and Beach apparently assume that the material being researched is correct For example in Anthropology Lila Abu-Lughod (about 1980) found that Bedouins had been lying to Anthropologists about certain issues for quite a long time There is also the issue of traditional bias as has been suggested by feminists in the case of androcentric bias. Formulate research questions a) Kottak (63) suggests that a good proposal should include several important questions 1. What is the topic or problem to be investigated? 2. Where and when will it happen? 3. What is going to be tested and how? 4. Is the person proposing it qualified to do it? 5. These questions are often submitted to a Committee on Human Subjects at the University of attendance. This committee is designed to protect the individuals who are under examination. Developing a hypothesis a) A hypothesis is designed to predict an answer to a research question b) The ideas in a hypothesis are stated as variables or characteristics and traits that can be measured 1. An independent variable causes changes in a dependent variable 2. An independent variable is a cause and a dependent variable is an effect 3. A control variable is also important because it is held constant (unchanged) and it shows the clear influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable Measurement is a process of assigning values such as numbers to variables research moves from the abstract to the empirical an operational definition is developed that allows concepts and variables to be empirically measured A key issue is validity or is the examination effective in measuring what you want it to measure A second issue is reliability or would the answers be the same during a second measurement Research design a) Select a method--The 4 major types of research design are experiments, surveys, secondary research and field research 1. Research design is centered on the population or the group of people who are being studied 2. Since populations are usually large, the use of a sample or a subset of the larger population is usually used 3. The actual method used should be appropriate for the type of study being conducted 4. My preferred method is to select a humanistic method such as personal interview with a more mathematically oriented method such as a questionnaire this use of multiple methods is called triangulation 5. Lindsey and Beach offer a fuller examination of causality by listing 4 conditions that must be met to have a “cause” and not an influence A cause must come before an effect (or time order) There must be a systematic relationship or a correlation The correlation between the independent and dependent variables cannot be explained by a 3rd variable (elimination of a false or spurious relationship A theory must be created or exist to explain the empirical findings 6. The first method mentioned earlier is the experiment a. the researcher divides the subjects into the experimental group that is changed and a control group that is not b. 7. 8. This division of groups is selected randomly either through coin flips, computer based randomization or through random number tables c. The dependent variable is measured beforehand by a pretest and afterwards by a posttest d. The difference in the dependent variable is then attributed to the independent variable (38) e. A major issue with field experiments is whether they are ethical or not. The issue of ethics often depends on the technique used f. The Lost letter method (an example)—stamped, addressed letters are left in assorted places to see if the letters are mailed by those who find them (those addressed to individuals had a 70% return rate while those addressed to hate groups had a 25% return rate) g. Randomized experiments can be a problem when, for example, random denial of a drug that could save someone’s life—placebos used by the control group h. Deception—this is used by psychologists and can be an ethical issue depending on the individual i. Passive deception—(no manipulation); example pretending to be a shopper to see how parents discipline their children The second method is Survey research--Survey research design involves sampling, impersonal data collection and statistical analysis survey research typically provides information that is useful for quantitative analysis—data easily translated into numbers Surveys try to find out precise information about behaviors. Today one can generalize from a small group of respondents to a larger group people who are being studied and answer the survey are respondents random sample—all members of the population have an equal statistical chance of being chosen for inclusion (there are statistics books that give listings of random numbers) a convenience sample is an example of a nonrandom survey that uses people readily available to the researcher a potential problem arises if those chosen for the survey choose not to respond (less than random if a number do not respond because their reasons for not responding are not known—only respondents provide input) another issue is the area being surveyed which may be either heterogeneous or homogeneous variables—attributes that vary among members of a sample or population the number of variables that influence social identity and behavior increases with social complexity Complex societies are—large and populous societies with social stratification and central governments Questionnaires—drawbacks of this method are that results are not as rich and people are restricted in their answers. The design of a good questionnaire is both a science and an art Questionnaires can be sent out by mail, e-mail or can be hand delivered etc. and returned by the same methods Closed Questions—people select from a set of answers The most important rule here is that the list of possible responses must be mutually exclusive (no overlap of alternatives) and exhaustive (all possible alternatives are listed) The reality is that closed questions can lead to erroneous assumptions being derived because there is no feedback from those being questioned How many of you have been asked a question on a questionnaire that you cannot fully answer because it is 1. The wrong question 2. A question where your answer would lie somewhere in between the answers that are listed Open Questions—allows people to say what comes into their minds these questions allow for a more complete response than closed questions However, it is more difficult to summarize the results than for a closed question instrument Lindsey and Beach recommend a mix of closed and open end questions However, I disagree because the wrong questions could still be asked without going into the realm of the interview 9. Personal Interviews Lindsey and Beach give 5 advantages to interviews A. some people may be able to respond verbally, but not in written form B. if a question is misunderstood then the interviewer can repeat and clarify it C. an interviewer may note factors in the setting that could influence the answers (Chinese women interviewees) D. matching the interviewer with interviewees can take place (same culture) E. The fifth advantage is that people would rather talk than write F. My view is that this is the most important format for examining societies because it allows the interviewer to potentially find the “right questions” G. The main issue is that an interview is a dialogue that allows for fuller answers to one’s questions H. Also it seems to be assumed that an interviewer from ones own culture is better than an outsider 1a. This can be a problem because someone from ones own culture thinks in a similar manner so innovative questions might not be asked Interviews also have 3 disadvantages according to Lindsey and Beach A. They cost more than questionnaires B. Interviewers are expected to record all responses verbatim (writing is a problem) C. Interviewer bias can creep in especially when respondents need questions clarified D. The second disadvantage is effectively erased if a tape recorder is used E. The third disadvantage—the possibility of bias—is present within any type of research Interviews usually use an interview schedule where the researcher talks face to face, asks questions and writes down the answers Directed Interviews follow a list of questions and are repeated with each interviewee Open-ended Interviews are designed to examine specific subjects (topic not question oriented) 10. Telephone interviews a. Lindsey and Beach claim that when a quick method of data collection is used over a wide geographic area then the best method is a telephone interview b. Telephone interviews have become important for measuring public opinion c. Advantages are: A. low cost B. interviewer safety d. disadvantages respondents can become impatient some individuals (many if not most Chinese-Americans, some urbanites) will never answer questions for a telephone interview It is my view that as public news services publicize cons used by individuals using the internet, phones etc. that people will become less willing to answer this type of interview 11. The third method of research is secondary analysis Secondary analysis involves the use of information collected for other purposes This method relies on information from documentary sources such as archives, newspapers, diaries, government and private records etc. It is the least expensive method of data collection Documentary resources can be examined through content analysis where researchers examine the content of documents noting what they feel is important for the research question This type of research involves unobtrusive measures (or data collection) where the researcher cannot influence the data another unobtrusive measure is a physical trace or evidence left from past behavior about what they valued thought or felt Two problems with documentary research are: access to documents document based data seldom fits the researchers need 12. The fourth method of research is Field research—in natural setting and concerns what individuals say and do This is a qualitative form of analysis that summarizes data in non-numerical ways to establish meaning and build theory {trans} Sometimes field research produces ethnography or a description of customs, beliefs and values of a culture compiled by researchers who live among the group being studied Observation and Participant observation The ethnographer usually takes a year to study his/her group During this time various methods are used to record data. Some of these are: a Diary--records personal impressions Field Notes—a formal record of field work Tape recordings—a form of field notes that is better for an interview format than the written word Film—this offers visual impressions of the community, but it can get expensive and is more limited in scope that a written text Photographs—useful for adding to materials when they are published A key to good ethnography is to accurately report what is seen in the field Another key issue is the establishment of rapport—a friendly working relationship based on personal contact (Kottak 66) Kottak (66) notes that one of Anthropology’s most characteristic procedures is participant observation. He notes that by living in a community it is not possible to be a totally impartial observer Participant Observation includes participation and observation can use 3 different roles complete participant or “going native”—becomes a member of the study group participant and observer—participates and observes complete observer—traditionally used where one merely observes what the natives do it should be noted that this is on a “spectrum” and that the three roles are actually points on a continuum The 7 stages of Participant Observer as experienced by the researcher 1. Contact—excitement for the researcher 2. Culture Shock—almost all contract depression or “shock” lasting for a few weeks it is at best feeling uncomfortable and at worst “nothing seems right” 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Discovering the Obvious—first discussions seem worthwhile, but later they are found to be commonplace Break—during the middle of fieldwork—allows one to gain distance both physically and emotionally and allows one to gain perspective Focusing—based on thought and perspective gained during the break Exhaustion of informants (information wise)—frantic activity for the Anthropologist (near the end of fieldwork) Leaving the field—generally when work stops being exciting Sociology 1301 (Introduction to Sociology) CULTURE--Section 3 Lindsey and Beach claim that culture is “a human society’s total way of life; it is learned and shared and includes the society’s values, customs, material objects and symbols.” (63) A) The use of the phrase human society suggests that only humans have culture B) Definitions and history (much from Heider 34) 1) Some of the earliest definitions of culture date from the 1700s and are in German 2) In a 1952 study, Kroeber and Kluckholm compiled and analyzed and compiled all of the definitions about culture that they could find and ended up with 300 pages of material C) Culture is Learned Heider (34) suggests that culture is not innate or genetically passed on, but learned (this is hard to prove in an absolute sense and there is some disagreement on this point). However, this is an identity and because Heider defines it this way his definition is not wrong because it is his definition. a) Disagreement arises from biological reductionists who tend to explain social behavior in terms of causes such a physiology or genes b) The most recent version of biological reductionism is sociobiology (coined by Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson) c) Lindsey and Beach’s definition of culture as learned could arise because of a consensus in the social sciences over a definition although biologists may see it differently d) However, Montagu and Pastore both think that those holding conservative political views tend to believe in the power of genes over the environment whereas those holding liberal political views tend to believe in the power of the environment over genes e) My view is that I tend to believe in the influence of the environment or culture as learned, but due to my knowledge of science I cannot completely rule out sociobiology despite a dislike for it Culture and Society A) Lindsey and Beach claim that culture can be divided into 2 major segments Material culture includes artifacts, physical objects and items that are found in a society Nonmaterial culture composed of society’s abstract components such as values, beliefs and traditions B) The text notes that culture exerts a powerful influence and that this can lead to ethnocentrism or seeing one’s culture as superior to others It should be noted that ethnocentrism is not the same as racism because it is based on culture and not race, however, in some instances it can be racist One type of ethnocentrism is European/American based and is known as Eurocentrism (origins of social sciences) a) Parrillo defines it as an idea where the content, emphasis or both in history, literature and other humanities primarily if not exclusively, concern Western culture. A second type that exists is Afrocentrism where emphasis is placed on African culture and its influence on Western civilization and the behavior of African-Americans a) In its moderate form it is an effort to counterbalance Eurocentrism and the suppression of African influences b) In a bolder form it is also ethnocentric c) An example, is a New York professor of African American Studies, Leon Jeffries, became enmeshed in a controversy when he asserted the superiority of the African “sun people” over European “ice people” Sociology is arguably the “enemy” of ethnocentrism. What would the friends of this term say? The viewing of one’s own culture as superior could be an aspect of patriotism and be a reflection of self-confidence and self worth The notion of applying one’s own values to judge the values and beliefs of another culture is an aspect of the idea of universal human rights (the rights are seen as universal by some nations and others disagree) The text claims that an alternative to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism or the view that all cultures have intrinsic worth and that each culture must be evaluated and understood in accordance with its own standards a) Kottak (93) notes that taken to extremes the relativist perspective would view Nazi Germany as non-judgmentally as Athenian Greece The idea of human rights is in partial opposition to cultural relativism Human rights are usually invested in individuals and are seen as inalienable-Inalienable can be defined as nations being unable to abridge or terminate them This ideology when carried too far can lead to interference in other cultures and a mentality not unlike that exhibited during colonialism (the “white man’s burden”) C) Values and Beliefs Values are cultural ideals of what is considered moral or immoral, good or bad, or proper or improper Core values are embraced by most members of a culture and help distinguish it from other cultures Beliefs are more specific and deal with what is true or false Lindsey and Beach offer a list of values that individuals in the U.S. are supposed to have and note that sometimes they can contradict one another Individualism—some Africans may see the U.S. as too anarchistic (it can be good or bad). However, many minorities and individuals might not subscribe to this ideal Achievement—(hard work pays off) exceptions? some street people Material comfort—exceptions? Masochists, monks Democracy and equality of opportunity—exceptions? Communists, fascists, megalomaniacs Nationalism—exceptions? Some college professors Group Superiority—our culture is superior—exceptions? Nationalized citizens Science and efficiency—exceptions? Some Religious groups Humanitarianism—exceptions? Hard to find one D) Norms and Sanctions 1) Norms are rules of conduct that guide people’s behavior in specific situations and express real culture versus ideal culture expressed in values 2) There are two categories of norms a) folkways are informal norms regulating customary ways of behaving 1. facing the wrong way in an elevator experiment, wearing a 3 piece suit to High School classes b) Mores are the norms that members of a society or culture consider vitally important, necessary or inviolable and can form the basis for laws 1. smoking pot, a male wearing a dress at my old High School c) Both categories have sanctions or penalties for violating them and rewards for following them Culture as a symbol system Lindsey and Beach claim a symbol is something that stands for or represents something else and is given meaning by those who use it (69) 1) Language is a symbol system of rules and meaning that govern the production and interpretation of speech (Lindsey and Beach) 2) Wardhaugh (3) claims that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication a) Language is a system or else it could not be learned or used consistently with the most basic observation about language being that it is composed of 2 systems (1 of sounds and 1 of meanings) b) All languages have this duality of sounds and meanings 3) Linguistic Determinism versus Linguistic relativity Linguistic determinism implies that language shapes thought Linguistic relativism involves the idea that significant differences between languages cause or at least are related to significant differences in cognition (not linguistic relativity) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis—determinism--(Kottak 180) is the theory that different languages produce different ways of thinking (Sociology language) Sapir and Whorf (in Kornblum) assert that “a person’s thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws or patterns of which he is unconscious” 4) Common symbols can also have radically different meanings or shades of meaning to different people a) In an example of different meanings The Dead Kennedys (writing is symbolic) means a punk rock band to one person and John F. and Robert Kennedy to others b) In terms of shades of meaning, we can discuss flag burning. A patriot may love the flag because it represents his/her country and a flag burner may hate the flag because it has the same meaning However, to both the flag is a symbol for the United States 5) Nonverbal Communication—hand movements, facial expressions and the use of personal space are a few of the more obvious examples Gestures—these seem to be learned and not biological, they can vary by culture and are of 3 types Emblems are gestures with specific meanings that could be used without speech (thumbs-up for o.k. or “v” sign or cornuto) illustrators—hand and arm motions that accompanied speech but have no direct translatability and are meaningless apart from speech (for emphasis) Butterworths—gestures that occur specifically as a part of an effort to recall a word and/or find an appropriate sentence structure Proxemics—the cultural use of space. Edward T. Hall offers 5 features 1. the distance between people (the dance of differing distance and comfort many Arabs stand so close to each other that they smell the breath of the other—to do otherwise would be rude) 2. as an example of the complex nature of distance E.T. Hall (Beyond Culture 98) speaks of “intrusion distance” or the distance one has to maintain from the two people who are already talking in order to get attention, but not intrude. 3. This idea depends on several aspects A the activity B Your status C Your relationship in a social system (husband and wife, boss and subordinate) D the emotional state of the parties E the urgency of the needs of the individual who must intrude (and other issues) 4. the degree of eye contact (ogling/threatening stare versus culture, and not meeting one’s eyes as shifty—southern Europe and Hispanics tend to have high eye contact while Northern Europeans and East Asians have low eye contact) 5. the shoulder axis angle between two people (open or closed—Buffalo stance?) 6. the degree of touching (or nontouching) the concept in the U.S. vs. European views 7. Vocal volume (deafness, rudeness exceptions) Kinesics—the study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures and facial expressions (Buffalo stance) Birdwhistle (Heider 113) suggests that tertiary sexual attributes (after primary—ex. Ovaries and secondary—ex. Breast development) are learned behaviors that communicate masculinity and femininity A. an example is intrafemoral angle or the notion that males sit with knees apart and females with knees together B. However, today this cultural attribute is changing due to women wearing pants suggesting that instead of communication it may merely be reflective of modesty Choreometrics—or dance and work movements 1. 2 main torso movements A. the trunk is held rigid and moves as a single unit (Europeans) B. the trunk moves as 2 units with the hips and shoulders moving separately (African/Polynesian/Elvis Presley) In terms of “gendered” speech men and women 1. pronounce vowels differently (men tend to pronounce them more “centrally” like “runt” instead of rent and women tend to pronounce them more peripherally like “rant” or “rint”) 2. women tend to use uneducated speech less than men 3. women usually swear less 4. Women (172) tend to build rapport or social connections with others while men tend to make reports reciting information that serves to establish a place for themselves in a hierarchy (example: corporations) Kottak (172) notes that we also use and evaluate speech in the context of extralinguistic forces (social, political and economic) with low status groups being seen as uneducated Bourdieu views linguistic practices as symbolic capital that properly trained people may convert into economic and social capital. 1. If one speaks of certain topics or with the proper accent (Eliza Doolittle—My Fair Lady) one can be accepted into a different class 6) Lindsey and Beach suggest that the idea that animals possess culture is difficult to defend for three reasons biological differences especially the capacity to develop language separates humans from higher primates primates may be able to learn through emulation, but they probably would be able to learn the behavior on their own instincts or unlearned patterns of behavior are not cultural because they do not have a symbolic referent Essentially, animals learn from experience, but human cultural learning depends on the (apparently) unique ability to use symbols This can be seen as a homocentric concept because not all life on earth is known (ocean depths), we may not be testing some animals correctly and there may be life on other planets. Cultural Change A) Culture is never fixed or static (it changes) B) Culture is contested by individual groups struggling with each other over values C) Cultural integration is a process where cultural elements become closely connected This suggests that a change in one part of culture will produce a change in other areas D) Both cultural change and integration are influenced by 2 important elements that bridge material and nonmaterial culture technology or tools and the body of knowledge pertaining to their use that help to accomplish social tasks popular culture where cultural patterns are produced and spread through the mass media especially television I would suggest that there are more elements that are influential such as high culture (opera etc.) E) Lindsey and Beach suggest that material culture changes faster than nonmaterial culture F) Cultural lag is this gap that exists between the time an object is invented and the time when it becomes integrated into a culture’s value system G) Cultural change can occur through diffusion or the spread of cultural items from one place to another Diffusion can be direct (like when 2 cultures intermarry or seize prisoners from one another) Diffusion can be Indirect where cultural items move into a culture without firsthand contact with the culture or origin Cultural change can occur through invention—where existing cultural elements are combined to form new ones And also through discovery or the creation of new cultural elements or the reinterpretation of existing ones Theoretical Perspectives on Culture and Cultural Change Functionalism—stresses the idea that every society must meet basic needs such as food and shelter in order to survive 1) all known prehistoric and historic societies are thought to have cultural universals (Murdock claims that there are 70 of these) such as an incest taboo (sociobiology argument) 2) Unique customs develop and persist because they are adaptive or help people to survive and reproduce and help a culture to maintain equilibrium despite change(Spencer’s “the survival of the fittest”) Conflict theory suggests that whatever group controls a culture’s ideology (the value system defining social inequality as just and proper) also determines how power and resources are allocated This ideology can even become a part of an oppressed group Symbolic interactionism This perspective suggests that people often present views that are flexible and pragmatic and that vary according to their personal situations Symbolic Interactionism suggests that cultural values and attitudes can help or hinder change-the book suggests progress and development, but these ideas are frequently subjective People may even reject an innovation that is adaptive Cultural Diversity Subculture—a segment of a culture sharing characteristics that distinguish it from the broader culture (they have values and norms distinct from mainstream culture) 1) subcultures are generally based on race, social class, ethnicity, age, religion, gender, sexual orientation, hobby, occupation etc. a) rites of passage are elaborate ceremonies that mark the transition from one life stage to another such as boyhood to manhood (also known as liminality or being on the threshold of change) b) Lindsey and Beach use the term race, but races do not actually exist because of the idea of clines or a gradual transition (intermediary groups) from one race to another Countercultures also exist that have values and norms that oppose the dominant culture (protest movement against Vietnam associated with rock music, sexual experimentation, illegal drug use etc.) The idea of multiculturalism has 2 levels of meaning 1) different cultural groups exist side by side in a given culture (these groups are subcultures) 2) multiculturalism refers to the emerging value of cultural identity or a belief that the ethnic heritage of all groups should be understood and respected 3) Parrillo suggests that multiculturalism is a cultural concept that ranges from efforts for an all inclusive curriculum to an emphasis on separatist pluralism Ethnocide can also take place where the extinction of a culture is attempted through conquest and genocide 1) However, ethnocide rarely succeeds for 2 main reasons a) because there have been advances in communication, isolation cannot be assured by geography b) there is a global consensus on human rights (no torture etc.) Sociology 1301 (Introduction to Sociology) SOCIAL STRUCTURE--Section 4 I. III. Social structure Blackwell notes that along with the concept of culture, social structure is a crucial defining concept for sociology as a way of thinking about social life (295) all social systems have structure and it is the structure that accounts for much of the difference between systems and the patterns of human experience and behavior that constitute social life (Blackwell 295) a) a social system can be defined as any interdependent set of cultural and structural elements that can be thought of as a unit (Blackwell 295) b) The pieces of the system can be of any size or complexity Blackwell claims that the structure of a social system can be analyzed in terms of 2 characteristics a) Relationships are the mechanisms that connect various parts together The parts can range from statuses that individuals occupy to entire systems or groups, organizations, communities, societies Social groups are the “building blocks” of a society A group is any collection of people who interact on the basis of shared expectations regarding one another’s behavior The relations that connect the parts have structural characteristics (focus on relations and not distribution) An example would be a role structure that includes all the different tasks people are expected to perform in the “division of labor a. Do gender differences-(how one relates to the other_ b. Do organic solidarity type roles b) Distributions or the way things are distributed As an example power may be distributed equally, as in a democracy or unequally as in an authoritarian regime Do gender differences (distribution power relations) Do organic solidarity role types Lindsey and Beach see social structure as referring to the relatively stable patterns of social interaction that characterize social life They clarify Blackwell’s view by suggesting that culture and social structure are interconnected and that culture is a program for how people behave with social structure providing the setting where culture is acted out Status and Role—the smallest components of social structure Status can have 2 different meanings (Blackwell 309) Max Weber equated the term with prestige Examples would be a “high status occupation” or someone who was “status conscious” The majority of sociologists , however, define status as a position that is occupied by an individual in a social system examples would be husband and wife in a marital system or halfback and quarterback on a football team Status is purely a relational term that demands at least 2 positions (a system) a) the term husband is useless without the term wife Statuses are also positions in a social system and are independent of the individuals who may occupy them The sum of all of the positions we occupy is a status set this multidimensional network of social systems composes the world we live in If these statuses do not fit together smoothly because they are ranked at different levels (high and low) then a condition called status inconsistency is taking place—differences between race, gender, ethnicity, etc. (92) An example is that an organized crime boss ranks high in terms of wealth and income, but low in terms of prestige Status inconsistency creates tension that can be resolved by bringing the various dimensions into alignment in a process known as status crystallization (discussed by Lenski—in Blackwell) an example is the crime boss becoming involved in legitimate businesses or even giving up crime altogether Barzini’s idea of wealth creating purity (Italian cultural view) Much interaction is status specific so people of means usually display status symbols suggesting how others are supposed to interact with them (my college ring) ascribed and achieved and Master statuses An ascribed status is a social position that is assigned at if not before birth and is usually permanent some ascribed status characteristics are race, gender, country of origin, ethnicity, caste and possibly religion An achieved status also known as an acquired status is a position in a social system that is acquired after birth (Blackwell 4) Examples are marital status, educational attainment etc. A master status is often the most important positions people occupy and it lies at the core of their social identity it influences how the roles associated with other positions are performed Some statuses are high such as University Professor Some statuses can have stigmas attached to them such as conviction for a crime Blackwell defines a stigma as a negative social label that identifies people as deviant not because their behavior violates norms, but because they have personal or social characteristics that lead people to exclude them 1. Examples are obese people (individualistic), some minorities (social category) etc. an ascribed status such as gender can function as master statuses especially in groups dominated by the opposite gender or a different race An example is the first person to fill a status such as a female executive is often dealt with more by her gender status than as an executive This position as the only individual of one’s gender or ethnicity in a group is known as tokenism Rosabeth Kanter discusses stereotypical roles adopted by token women in a corporation (Men and Women of the Corporation 235) She claims two of the roles are classics in Freudian theory, specifically, the mother and the seductress (Freud wrote that men need to handle women’s sexuality by envisioning them as “madonnas” or whores” or asexual mothers or overly sexual seductresses In the mother role the woman is brought problems by the men and is expected to comfort them (no availability for sexual pursuit) In the seductress role can involve competition and jealousy. She may not even be acting the role at a conscious level, but may be cast in that role by the men surrounding her The second 2 roles of “pet” and “iron maiden” also have counterparts in the kid sister and the virgin aunt A. The “pet” is adopted by the male group as cute and is treated as a mascot. They desire her to display humor and admire, but not enter into their displays (metaphorically a cheerleader on the sidelines) B. The “iron maiden” is the one who resists all of the other roles and is stereotyped as tougher than they are. These women face abandonment (unlike seductresses and pets) and are left to flounder on their own when they have problems This idea only involves tokens {transparency? Pg. 209 Kanter} 1) She notes that as the minority group expands to ratios of possibly 65:35 dominants become the majority and tokens become just a much less noticeable minority. Minorities can form coalitions. IV. 2) When the group reaches 60:40 or 50:50 the group becomes balanced and both majority and minority become potential subgroups. Events depend on personal abilities and structural factors h) It should be noted that multiple ethnic groups would change the group dynamics immensely as will is illustrated on page 101 of Lindsey and Beach Role—Lindsey and Beach claim that it consists of norms associated with a particular status— norms that specify the behavior of an individual occupying that position 1) Blackwell sees the idea of role as more complex using the example of the role of a teacher a) A teacher’s role is built around a set of ideas about teachers in relation to students. These are: 1. Beliefs about who they are 2. Values related to the goals they are supposed to pursue 3. Norms about how they are to appear and behave 4. Attitudes about their emotional predisposition toward their work and students 5. Students may have ideas like: A. a belief that they know less than the teacher, the value B. learning is good as an end in itself C. expectations to arrive on time and work hard D. maintenance of an attitude of respect toward their teacher and other students 6. neither students nor teachers believe A. in approaching each other sexually B. in exchanging money for grades C. in being vicious or sarcastic 2) A role partner is the occupant of a social status in relation to whom a person’s role is defined (Blackwell 266) In terms of a role partner a mother is defined in relation to the role of a child (mother and child are role partners) 3) A role set--“important” statuses are accompanied by a cluster of related, but somewhat distinct roles 4) Role conflict arises when people are confronted with contrary or incompatible role expectations in the various social statuses they occupy in their lives a) role strain can result where conflicting roles are associated with the same status a policeman is expected to be loyal and root out corruption b) When role conflict involves roles associated with two different statuses the result is known as status strain an example of this is that of a parent and an employee (quality or quantity time with children versus needing to keep a job) c) There are 4 responses for minimizing role conflict 1. choose which role is the most important then violate the expectations of the other role 2. leave one of the conflicting statuses (quit a job to care for kids) 3. role (or audience) segregation or the practice of separating various role partners from one another (doctors can refuse to treat members of their own family) 4. role distance (Erving Goffman) minimizing role strain associated with associated with a disagreeable role (not just a waiter but an actor, mafia: “it’s nothing personal, it’s just business) d) role embracement can also taker place where people feel that they are little more than the roles they are expected to play Social Groups A) Lindsey and Beach and Blackwell define a social group as consisting of 2 or more people who interact regularly and feel some sense of solidarity or common identity 1) Groups develop a sense of “we-ness” that enables members to identify themselves as belonging to a distinct entity although recognition that the group exists may or may not be shared by those outside the group 2) Kornblum notes that groups can be informal with variable and ill defined statuses and roles (buses) or more formal where statuses are well defined (family) 3) Blackwell further suggests that it is not always clear whether a group has enough interaction or we-ness to qualify as a group 4) A better way to look at group is to think in terms of varying degrees of “groupness” (a continuum) 5) Groups also vary by how often and extensively members interact, how long the group survives and the reasons that people join and participate 6) William Graham Sumner (social darwinist) in 1906 described members of groups as ingroups and non-members as an out-groups and suggested that there could be hostilities across group boundaries 7) Lindsey and Beach suggest that “we” i.e. in-group are intelligent, dedicated and consistent and they i.e. out-group are cunning fanatical and rigid 8) Collins & Makowsky claim that Charles Horton Cooley developed the idea of primary groups (Social Organization 1909) and secondary groups a) Primary Groups are characterized by intimacy, face-to-face interaction, emotional warmth and cooperation these groups are seen as the “seedbeds of society” (Collins 174) because they are fundamental to the formation of the social nature of the individual and their primary ideals of love, freedom and justice The basic experience in this group is the feeling of social unity with other members b) Secondary groups that are impersonal, contractual, formal and rational 1. Relationships in these groups are cool rather than warm c) It should be noted that these groups are polemics and that the real structure is a continuum d) It should be also noted that primary groups may emerge within, for example secondary groups or bureaucracies (academic cliques, boards of directors etc.) 9) Georg Simmel’s analyses of the effects of group size suggest that a group too large for all its members to converse together will have a different structure than a smaller one (Collins and Makowsky 169) a) A two person group or dyad’s fundamental reality is its “perishability” or ability to dissolve with the leave taking of one individual. This gives each partner a hold on the other b) The triad, composed of three people offers a certain independence because if one person leaves the group will still exist 1. Collins and Makowsky suggest that in a triad the individual is less significant than the group 2. Triads also allow for the formation of coalitions and an increased potential for an imbalance of power 3. It should also be noted that in a dispute between 2 members the third can serve as a mediator 4. The third member may also try to divide and rule 5. Thoreau’s remark, “I have three chairs in my house: one for solitude, two for company, three for society” is suggested by Simmel’s idea c) Once groups of more than 3 members form intimacy declines and stability increases d) When groups surpass 5 or 6 members they become more formal (Larger social structures) 10) Parrillo notes that another form of group is a minority group some of which can represent millions of people a) the term minority group does not denote a group’s numbers, but instead its relative power and status in a society b) Wagley and Harris identified 5 characteristics shared by minority groups on a worldwide basis (in Parrillo) 1. the group receives unequal treatment compared to other groups 2. the group is easily identifiable based on distinguishing physical or cultural characteristics that are held in low esteem 3. V. VI. The group feels a sense of peoplehood—that each member shares something in common with other members 4. Membership in the group has an ascribed status—one is born into it 5. Group members tend to practice endogamy or to marry within their group by choice, necessity or due to social isolation Larger Social Structures The first type is a network defined as a collection of relationships that connect people, social statuses, or other units of analysis such as groups and formal organizations (Blackwell) 1) It should be noted that it is only since the 1970s that this idea became extremely significant for sociologists in terms of being a perspective on social life 2) Generally, the network approach assumes that individual experience, behaviors and outcomes depend more on where people are in the network than who they are as unique individuals 3) The differences among people can be understood as a result of being in different networks or located differently in the same network 4) In networks the more centrally a person is located, the more power they tend to have as a result 5) Strong links exist between those who know each other well, while weak links exist between those who know each other less intimately As a part of larger social structures, formal organizations also exist that can be defined as a social system organized around specific goals and usually consisting of several interrelated groups or subsystems Formal organizations are ruled by clearly stated rigidly enforced norms Bureaucracy is the most highly complex and highly developed type of formal organization Social institutions are also important and can be defined as an enduring set of ideas about how to accomplish goals generally recognized as important in a society Institutions differ because they focus on different social functions (Blackwell) Like many social institutions institutions are external to individuals who participate in them, but they are shaped and changed by that participation Institutions can become more complex over time especially those such as religion education and politics (Kornblum 91) Large scale societies like the U.S. have several institutional sectors The economy for example is an institutional sector that includes markets, corporations or other economic institutions A major feature of human societies is the creation of new social institutions known as differentiation—a term labeled by Talcott Parsons Parsons meant that the processes whereby the sets of social activities performed by one social institution are divided among different institutions a) In the case of a family, new institutions such as schools take over some of the functions of training the young The Evolution of societies Durkheim’s evolutionary theory is rooted in the idea of society being based upon a common moral order rather than rational self interest 1) He argues the state itself only exists because of the collective use of force (King and followers together) 2) The collective use of force relies on prior solidarity based on emotional feelings and not intellectual agreement (not a “social contract”) 3) He suggested that people in a society have a “collective consciousness” or a sense of belonging to a community with others and hence they feel a moral obligation to live up to its demands {transparency of follows contract and cheats SOCI} 4) Two types of solidarity arose out of this idea with mechanical being the original method and organic only coming after changes in society expanded job categories Mechanical solidarity refers to the idea that in tribal or peasant societies most people are like each other (almost all are farmers or warriors) A strong collective consciousness exists because people have many ideas in common because of their common experiences Organic solidarity exists in societies with a high division of labor where people have a great many different occupations 1. It is the exchanges themselves that provide the collective sense of belonging (human body metaphor) Ferdinand Tonnies examination of societies started at the microlevel by comparing social interaction in traditional and modern societies Tonnies claims that relationships in social systems vary along a continuum anchored by gemeinschaft relations on one end and gesellschaft relations on the other Gemeinschaft relations are based on a relatively homogeneous culture and rend to be intimate, informal, cooperative, and imbued with a sense of moral obligation to the group often based on kinship ties Gesellschaft relations tend to be formal, goal-oriented, heterogeneous, and based on individual self-interest, competition and a complex division of labor these types of societies are usually found in agrarian and industrial societies Gerhard & Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Their process of socio-cultural evolution from mechanical to organic solidarity or from gemeinschaft to gesellschaft is divided into 5 stages Hunting and gathering have a simple division of labor where men mostly hunted and women gathered in this society all sought food, therefore there was little time for specialization Horticultural societies started with the domestication of various types of plants and animals 1. These societies produce larger amounts of food allowing some craftspeople to specialize, the size of society grows and a semi-sedentary lifestyle begins Pastoral societies appeared about the same time as horticulture. Both of these are at the same level they are just used in different environments 1. Again surplus allows for some full time specialists Agrarian societies produce large surpluses allowing for quick population growth 1. Full time specialists developed, the state grew in power, female status generally decreased and social inequality increased at this level The Industrial and Postindustrial societies 1. Industrial society is based on the use of non-animate sources of production for economic production 2. During this era a population explosion took place, mechanical solidarity waned, class systems emerged, however, recently devalued groups (ethnic groups etc.) have gained more equal treatment 3. The postindustrial model is based on technology and service industries and Lenski and Lenski predict that the transition will be difficult