Download Lesson 1: Attributes of Learning and Classical Conditioning

Lesson 1: Attributes of Learning and Classical Conditioning
I.
II.
Attributes of learning
A. Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in
behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.
B. Distinction between learning and performance
1. Performance is an exhibited behavior
2. Learning can be inferred from performance, but
performance is not always an accurate measure of
learning
Classical conditioning
A. Definitions
1. Classical conditioning is defined as learning that takes
place when an originally neutral stimulus comes to
produce a conditioned response because of its association
with an unconditioned stimulus.
2. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) reflexively
produces an unconditioned response (UCR), even in the
absence of previous training.
3. A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that has
come to elicit a conditioned response (CR) because the
organism associates the conditioned stimulus with the
unconditioned stimulus.
B. Acquisition
1. Involves repeated pairings of the CS and the UCS.
2. Paradigms:
a. Trace conditioning occurs when the CS is
presented and terminated before the presentation of
the UCS. Conditioning is often effective when the
interval between the presentation of the CS and the
UCS is about a half second.
b. Delay conditioning occurs when the CS is
presented and continues at least until the UCS is
presented.
c. Simultaneous conditioning occurs when the CS
and the UCS are presented and terminated at the
same time.
d. Backward conditioning occurs when the UCS is
presented before the CS.
e. Temporal conditioning occurs when the nominal
CS is a fixed period of time between presentations
of the UCS.
C. Extinction
1. A procedure that leads to the gradual weakening and
eventual disappearance of the CR
2. Involves repeatedly presenting the CS without paining it
with the UCS
D. Spontaneous recovery occurs when a previously extinguished
CR suddenly reappears after a period of no training
III.
Classical conditioning- the details
A. Generalization
1. Occurs when a CR occurs to stimuli that are similar to
the CS, even though these stimuli may never have been
associated with the UCS
2. The more similar the stimuli are the CS, the greater the
likelihood of generalization.
B. Discrimination
1. Occurs when stimuli similar to the CS do not produce a
CR
2. 2. The more similar the stimuli are to the CS, the greater
the difficulty of discrimination.
C. Famous demonstrations of classical conditioning
1. Ivan Pavlov and his dogs
a. The sound of a metronome (CS) was paired with
meat powder (UCS) until the CS alone produced
salivation (CR)
b. This demonstration established the basic
components of classical conditioning: acquisition,
extinction, generalization, and discrimination
2. John Watson and Little Albert
a. The sight of a white rat (CS) was paired with loud
noise (UCS) until the CS alone produced crying
and other responses indicative of fear (CR)
b. This demonstration showed that human emotional
responses could develop as a result of classical
conditioning
D. Theoretical models of classical conditioning
1. Contiguity model
a. Argues conditioning will occur whenever a CS and
a UCS are paired
b. Based on the work of Pavlov
2. Contingency model
a. Argues the CS must reliably predict the USC for
conditioning to occur
b. Based on the work of Robert Rescorla and Allen
Wagner
c. This model is supported by phenomena like
blocking, demonstrated by Leon Kamin (1969)
Lesson 2: Instrumental Learning and Operant Conditioning
I. Instrumental learning
A. Means that an organism's behavior is instrumental in
producing an environmental change that in turn affects the
organism's behavior
B. Based on the work of Edward L. Thorndike (1974-1949)
C. The fundamental principle is Thorndike's Law of Effect,
which states behaviors are encouraged when they are followed
by rewarding consequences and discouraged when they are
followed by punishing consequences
II. Operant conditioning
A. The system of instrumental learning developed by B. F. Skinner (19041990). Operant conditioning can be used to influence the likelihood of an
organism's response by controlling the consequences of the response.
B. Shaping
1. A technique whereby successive approximations of a
behavior are reinforced. In other words, behaviors that come
closer and closer to the final target behavior are reinforced by
the training.
2. This technique makes it possible to operantly condition
behaviors that are not likely to happen otherwise.
C. Discriminative stimulus (SD)
1. Defined as a stimulus that signals or informs the organism of the
availability of reward or punishment. For example, the ring of a telephone is
a discriminative stimulus which informs a person that the behavior of
answering is likely to be met with the reward of a conversation. Similarly,
the presence of a scowl on a parent's face signals a teenager that the behavior
of asking a favor of the parent is likely to be met with rejection.
2. These stimuli are valuable for determining when a particular behavior will
occur. Phones are only answered when they ring and favors are generally not
asked when a parent is scowling.
D. Training procedures
1. Positive reinforcement occurs when an appetitive (desired) stimulus
follows a behavior. This procedure makes the behavior more likely to recur.
For example, if a child is given praise (appetitive stimulus) for picking up a
toy (behavior), the child will be more likely to pick up the toy in the future.
2. Negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive (not desired) stimulus
is prevented or eliminated following a behavior. This procedure makes the
behavior more likely to recur. For example, if a child takes out the garbage
(behavior) and her mother stops nagging (aversive stimulus), the child will
be more likely to take out the garbage in the future.
3. Punishment occurs when an aversive (not desired) stimulus follows a
behavior. In real life results are varied and controversial, but this procedure
theoretically makes the behavior less likely to recur. For example, if a child
has his hand slapped (aversive stimulus) for pulling a dog's tail (behavior),
the child will be less likely to pull the dog's tail in the future.
4. Omission training occurs when an appetitive (desired) stimulus is
prevented or eliminated following a behavior. This procedure makes the
behavior less likely to recur. For example, if a child grabs a toy from her
sibling (behavior) and her mother denies the child access to television
(appetitive stimulus) for a period of time, the child will be less likely to grab
toys in the future.
E. Types of reinforcers
1. Primary reinforcers are defined as biologically relevant natural events
that are capable of increasing the probability of behaviors that produce them.
Water is a primary reinforcer for a thirsty person.
2. A secondary (or conditioned) reinforcer is a neutral event that has taken
on the reinforcing properties of a primary reinforcer by being associated
with it. Money is a secondary reinforcer because people have learned that it
can be used to purchase a variety of primary reinforcers.
F. Chaining is an operant technique whereby the organism is required to
perform several different behaviors, in sequence, before the reward is
administered. Complex strings of behaviors can be maintained by the use of
a single reward at the end of the sequence.
G. Extinction occurs in operant conditioning when a behavior no longer
produces a reinforcer. Under these conditions the behavior eventually
ceases.
Lesson 4: Operant Conditioning (continued)
I. Schedules of reinforcement involve the circumstances under which
reinforcements are delivered.
A. Continuous reinforcement
1. Every target response is rewarded
2. Produces behavior that extinguishes easily
B. Continuous reinforcement (or partial) reinforcement means that only
some correct responses are rewarded.
1. Fixed-ratio (FR)
a. A fixed number of target responses must be made before reward is given.
b. For example, a "But 10, get 1 free" offer maintains buying behavior on an
FR schedule.
c. This schedule produces a "pause and run" response pattern.
2. Variable-ratio (VR)
a. The number of target responses required for reward changes, and the
organism never knows how many responses are required for the next reward.
b. This is the gambler's schedule. For example, one never knows how many
lottery tickets must be bought before winning.
c. This schedule produces a consistent, high rate of responding that is very
resistant to extinction.
3. Fixed-interval (FI)
a. The first target response after a fixed interval of time has passed is
rewarded.
b. For example, a student who studies every Thursday evening for the
regularly scheduled Friday quiz in his psychology class will be rewarded
with a good grade. The interval is one week.
c. Most of the responses on a FI schedule occur at the end of the interval and
this pattern of responding is called "scalloping."
4. Variable-interval (VI)
a. Similar to the FI schedule, except that the length of the interval of time
changes after each trial, and the organism has no way of knowing how long
the next interval will be.
b. For example, a student in a class where surprise quizzes are given on
random days is rewarded for studying on a VI schedule.
c. Responding on a VI schedule tends to be steady and at a moderate rate.
5. Typical response patterns for the intermittent schedules of reinforcement:
II. Aversive conditioning is training with stimuli not desired by the
organism.
A. Punishment (see Lesson 3.II.D.3)
1. The use of punishment is controversial, and its effects vary widely.
2. When it works, effective punishment is often intense and immediate.
3. Punishment may produce only temporary suppression of the undesired
behavior or lead to aggressive behavior, among other things.
B. Negative reinforcement (see Lesson 3.II.D.2) includes two subtypes:
1. Escape occurs when a behavior terminates an aversive event. For
example, a person can escape a headache (aversive event) by taking an
aspirin (behavior). This negatively reinforces aspirin taking and makes this
behavior more likely in the future.
2. Avoidance occurs when a behavior happens in the presence of a signal
that informs the organism that an aversive event is likely. For example, a
person can avoid indigestion (aversive event) by taking an antacid
(behavior) before eating a spicy dinner (signal that indigestion is likely).
This negatively reinforces antacid taking and makes this behavior more
likely in the future.
C. Learned helplessness, a phenomenon described by Martin Seligman
1. Defined as a decrease in responding that occurs after exposure to
uncontrollable aversive events. For example, dogs subjected to
uncontrollable electric shocks are later unable to learn a routine escape task.
2. Seligman believes learned helplessness helps explain things such as
depression and varying levels of job performance.
D. Practical uses of operant conditioning are numerous and include:
1. Educational strategies
2. Animal training
3. Behavior modification techniques
4. Token economies
5. Behavior therapy for psychological disorders
Lesson 5: Cognitive Learning and the Role of Biology and Culture in
Learning
I. Cognitive learning emphasizes the role of mental processes.
A. Insight learning, described by Wolfgang Kohler in The Mentality of
Apes, is the sudden awareness of the solution of a problem. For example, the
chimp Sultan seemed to suddenly grasp the need to use a short stick to reach
a longer stick which in turn could be used to reach some fruit.
B. Latent learning, described by Edward Tolman (1886-1959), is defined
as learning in the absence of apparent reward. For example, rats given an
opportunity to explore a maze will develop
a cognitive map, even when there is neither reward nor motivation for
learning. Later, when reward is available, rats that have had the opportunity
to explore will perform better than those that have not had that opportunity
C. Observational learning, described by Albert Bandura, is defined as
learning that takes place by watching another individual model the learning
task. This has important implications for humans, ranging from the potential
negative effects of violent television programming to the potential positive
effects of providing children with appropriate role models.
II. The role of biology in learning
A. Learning is adaptive in that it enhances an individual's ability to survive.
B. Biological constraints on learning including innate predispositions
influence the likelihood that conditioning can occur.
1. Rats are predisposed to learn taste aversions, as demonstrated by Garcia
and Koelling (1966).
2. Breland and Breland (1961) reported that it was difficult to train a pig (but
not a raccoon) to put a wooden disk into a piggy bank. Instinctive drift
occurs when an organism's instinctive behavior makes it easier or harder to
establish a learned response than it would be if the instinctive behavior were
not present.
III. Culture also influences the kind of learning that can occur, and the
environment may limit learning opportunities.