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fZ--I'i-~ ()r{~/~A:-1 Overlooked Scientific Issues in Assessing Hypothesized Greenhouse Gas Warming. R. A. Pielke Department of Atmospheric Colorado 80523, USA Science, Colorado State University, F~rt Collins, I ABSTRACT This paper presents severa.1issues related to the gree~house gas globa.1 ,,'arming hypothesis which should be satisfactorily addressed bfrore costly control requirements are imposed on society. The questions which n d to beans"'ered include the importance of other anthropogenic influences suc as landscape changes and enhanced atmospheric a~rosolloading, Controls su h as conservation and improved energ)' efficiency, of course, which are benefits to society should be implemented regardless of globa.1climate change, KEY WORDS Gr~nhouse \\'arming issues, Climate change, Global Iwarming 1. INTRODUCTION Dllring the last several years, there has been considerable concern expressed by the media, members of the scientific community, politicians, and others concerning a global ~.arming resulling from anlhropogeniccaused increases in certain trace gases in lhe almosphere. These trace gases, ~.hich include carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, and nilrous oxide, reduce the amount of the earth's radiation which is emitled lo space. Since 1880, for example, the concenlration of carbon dioxide has apparently increased very systemalically ~'ilh only seasonal fluctuations of about 6- 7 parts per million from an estimaled annual average value of 290 parls per million in 1880 to 3.)0 parts per million at the current lime (see Figure la for the 1958 1984 period), ~'hile the surface air temperature record (based almost exclusively on land data) has behaved as sho\\.n in Figure lb. Numerical models of the global at- mosp ere and ocean circulations (referred to as general circul lion models -GCMs) have been used lo investigate l e impact on climate of an increase in these trace gases. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) COlIC! ded in 1983 based on these models. for example. lhal n increase or the average global temperatures or 5°C ). the ).ear 2100 "'ith an incrcase or sea level up to ar und 2 meters "'ill result because or the global enha cement or these gases. The \Vorld ;\Ieteorological rganization has concluded that greenhouse gas cause "'arming could cause a global ".arming of 1.5°C to 4, °C by the middle of the ncxt century. T Ie purpose of this paper is to discuss a number of serio s shortcomings in the GC~f model simulations \"hid ha\'e produced these conclusions regarding climater change, These limitations, "'hich are either inadeq,atel)' hand!ed or not represented at all in GC~fs, are s~mmarized in this paper. * Pa7lCTTotci"cJ 10 A7I"'1990 anJ in final fa"" 10 D.ccm6cT 1990 100 Environmental Soft,,'are, 1991,Vol, 6, No, 2 issues. l),lper originally appeared in the Proceedings of the ~990 ElE'Ctric Utility BusinES$En\;ron~nt Con~rencc and E.xhibition. Othe scientists ha,e also raised concern that a greel1hou global ,,"arming has ba-n o,'erstated because of atural and man-caused compensating effects (e.g. Re fsnyder7 and Lindzen8). P. ~ficllaels, State Climatol g~t of \!irginia, has been particularly out- spoken c ncernil1g an overstatcment of a greenhouse gas cau d warming (e.g. Michaels9), GCM investigators ar also raising cautions regarding the realism of their .mulations. Cess et 0/.1°, for example, compared 14 GC~ts and found a large sensitivity bet\\'een models simulated sea surface temperature due to different reatmenls of the cloud-climate feedbacks in tile mode s. Guto".ski tt aV' have sbo".n that the disFigure 1: at ,lJauna monthly sllrcmtnt.s. K tflingl, plied (a) Loa avtrage.s Conctntration Obstrvatory, dttennined of Hau'aii. from Based on data rcporltd suppltmtnttd by pErsonal by data from communication atmosphtric Dots CQoz indicate continuolls mta. by Bacastow rcctnt (from Bolin ytars and sup- tt 01.2.) crepanci bet\\'een GCMs in the simulation of do\\'n\'.ard Ion \\.ave radiati\"e fluxes are larger than the flux changes iated ,,'ith doubling carbon dioxide in the modeled actually Figure 1: (b) Comparison of the annual global and hemispheric temperature change for the Hansen and Lebedeif' data and the Jones et al.~.5 data set (after Hansen and Lebedeif'; from Karl et al.6. tmospheres. Also, evident in Figure Ib, and reported by Thomas Karl rthe National Climatic Data Center (NOAA Report12 .most or the global ,,"arming that has occurred 0 r tbe last century occurred btlo~ the recent rise in gr nhouse gas concentrations. Between 1919 and 1986 according to that Report, temperatures rose only 0.1 .C yet greenhouse gases increased by 30%. From 19 I to 1979, the global temperatures over land ooled. Figure 2 Soyb,an trnnspiration efficiency as a func. tion of ~ re[atit'e to trnnspiration efficiency at ambient C 2' The points were tltttnnined from the mea. suremen s of Rogers et al,14, The clln'e is a [og regression fit TE = -3,236 + o. i297 [n C~, r = 0, 94; from Ki 9 et 0/.13), Environtnenlal Software, 1991,Vol. 6, No.2 101 Ot.'trlocltd Scltnl.fic Issvtj: R.A. Pit/l( 2. INCREASED CARBON DIOXlDE CONSUI\WTION ~ULTING FROM INV1GoRATED PLANT GROWTH ON LAND AND IN TJ-IEOCEAN Ir vegetation gr~,th is enhanced because or an enrichment in carbon dioxide, the importance or this greenhouse gas to global ,,'arming would be reduced. Figure 2, reproduced rrom King et 0/.13, documents that soybean transpiration efficiency, and therefore soybean yield, ,,'ould increase if CO2 concentrations are elevated, Ir the response is characteristic of natural and other agricultural crops, a substantial portion of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions could be absorbed in biomass resulting in a benefit to mankind, 3. INABILITY FOR GCM MODELS TO PROPERLY RE50LVE THE EVOLUTION OF EXTRATROPICAL AND TROPICAL CY CLONES DUE TO THEm POOR SPATIAL RESOLUTION The horizontal grid spacing of general circulation models is around 400 km. As shown by Pielkel$, as least four grid increments are required to reasonably represent an atmospheric feature, thus this grid resolution \"ould only permit features 1600 km or larger to be reasonably represented in the models, Since extratropical cyclones often are observed to have horizontal ".avelengths as small as 500 km or so, they are poorly represented in these models, Since these features provide the major physical mechanism for the exchange of heat, moisture, and momenlum bet,,'een the sublropics and lhe polar regions, the inability of GCM representations to adequately represent these exchanges is a serious shortcoming" Tropical cyclones, ".hich also provide an important mechanism for exchanges bet""een the tropics and higher latitude is even more poorly represented since iu scales of important ph)'Sical processes includes the eye wall ,,'hich can be tens of kilometers in radial size. Pielke16 discusses this shortcoming further. have so. n extent lution on the order tenti Up~'elling of deep, cold ocean ~'aters occurs at a number of locations around the world including the equalorial Pacific, around Anlarctica, and off the ,,'esl coast of Norlh America, northern South America, norlh~'esl Africa, southwest Africa, and elsewhere. Caused by the direction and speed of the wind al the ocean surface, these up,,'elled regions of cold surface waters usually 102 Environmental Sofl.y,'are,1991,Vol. 6, No.2 dire.:tion GC~ls of 400 km, sinks for carbon dioxide of 50 km have spatial these important, or rC$o. po- are ignored. 5. 0 CURRENCE OF GREATER GLOBAL CLO D COVERAGE AS A RESULT OF COLLOI ALLY MORE STABLE CLOUDS DUE TO THROPOGE!'.T}C INPUT OF AEROSO ~ FigUr 3, reproduced from Warren et 0/.17, indicates that loud coverage over the oceans has increased by about 3% since 1930. \\'hile the physical explanation for thIs increase is unknown, it could be because the anthro~genic input of aerosols (i.e. cloud condensation nucleil) has made the clouds colloidally more stable. so that ~hey persist longer before precipitating. , FigU fe 3: Total annual ot'(r 4. INABILITY FOR GCM MODELS TO PROPERLY RESOLVE REGIONS OF OCEAN UPWELLING WHOSE COLD WATERS CAN El\TJIANCE THE OCEANIC UPTAKE OF CARBON DIOXIDE in one spatial Si ce atm~pheric-ocean global cloud corerage the oceans (rcproJuced from microfich~ in pcrccnt in IJ'arrcn et aI17). to estimate the potential impact of such a change in clbud co\'erage on the earth's equilibrium temperature~ TEl J 0'11 = 5(1 -A) (1) ,,"he e 0' is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5 is the me n solar irradiance at the earth's mean orbital p<>~" n, and A is the average albedo. Equation (1) is a Sit bat nce equation between the incoming radiation ener from the sun ,,"hich is absorbed by the earth (the OlcrlocJ;cJ Sciclltlfic right sid~ of (I », And th~ radiation en~rgy emitted by the earth (the left side (I». While this heat balance does not provide any information regarding the globa! surface temperature, it does provide a measure of the sensitivity of the land-ocean-atmosphere system to changes in the amount of solar radiation a\'ailable to the planet. By using differentia! calculus and assuming small changes and inserting observed values for <T and S (Pielke and A vissar18), Equation (I) can be re~'ritten as 6TE = -268~A (2) where TE = 283°K wasused. Equation (2) indicates that a change of albedo of +3% over the oceans(which co\-er about 75% of the earth'5 surface so thal the global average change of albedo would be 6A = 2.25 if no cloud changes occurred over land) would resull in an equilibrium temperalure change of over -6°C! Such a sensitivity to albedo suggeststhat t.heincreasein cloud coveragereporled on above could compensat.e for any greenhouse gas warming, and even result.in a global cooling! 6. MODIFICATION OF THE AMOUNT OF SOLAR RADIATION REFLECrED BACK INTO SPACE DUE TO MAN-CAUSED LANDSCAPE CHANGrn y EVAPOMOD 7. THE AT tICATION ION AND OSPHERE CAUSE lsslics: RA. Piclcc INTRANSPIRATION THE A1\10UNT AS A LANDSCAPE RESULT TO OF OF ?-.1AN- CHANGES Landscapechanges also alter the partitioning of turbulent hea fluxes into sensible and latent heat componenls and he movement of water between the earth's surface an the atmosphere. Sensible heat fluxes directly ~'ar the atmosphere, ~'hile latent heat is represented b evaporation from surfaces and transpiration from egetation ~'ith any ~'arming not realized until cond nsation and/or deposition to liquid and/or iceoccurs primarily in clouds). All man-caused landscapechan es will have some impact 00 this heat and ~'aterbud et. Irrigat d land representsone example of this effect. Figure 4 d uments satellite measuredsurface temperaturesove an area in northeast Colorado in which this land pract ce is applied, Temperatures are o\'er lO°C coolerove the irrigated area at this time of the day, as a\'eraged ver two weeks during a particular summertime peri. Aircraft measuremen~ made o\'er this area (Seg et 41.11)document that this area is also much mor moist than the surrounding dryland area, thus irrig ted areas may be associated ,,'itb changes in cumulu cloud co\'erage and intensity (Pielke and Zeo&11). Changes in land surface reflection, if over a large enough area, could similarly influence the earth's equilibrium temperature. If Equation (2) is rewritten as to consider only land surfaces (,,"hich cover about 25% of the earth's surface), then As an example of documented land surface changes, a forest in the eastern United States has an albedo as viewed from space on the order of 0.15 to 0,20, while if 'il \'.ere cleared and replaced by agricultural crops, the albedo can be up to 0.30 (RosenbergI9). ~ <)1 CiN .:,:",.:::;~. .";*"1"~;:::O;~:"1'"~'~l: ~TE = -6i6A Here 6A is the average change of albedo on land. Therefore a land-average increase of 6A of 1% ".ould result in a change in the equilibrium temperature of -O.67°C. A decrease of 1% would correspond to a O.67°C "'arming. Similarly, a 25% change in land surface albedo over I % of the land surface "'ould yield the same result. ~ c::;:, Ki:..%"J t J4Q Figure 4:1 a/11ft omposite at 1 00 LST of GOES for the period dcrived surface 1 August I tempcr. 1986 to 15 .4ugast 1 86 for northeast Colorodo (FC. Fort Collins; F.\l. Fo Morgan; GR -Grecley; from Segal ct 0/.20). ~ 8. CLO S WInCH CONTAIN SULPHATE PARTI ~,RESULTING FROM FOSSIL FUEL MBUSTION, HAVE A ffiGHER ALBED THAN PRISTINE CLOUDS Satellite ~bservations discussed in the November 1989 issueof SFientific A merican, and assuggestedby T\\'o- Environ~ental Soft\\'are, 1991, Vol. 6, No.2 103 Orfrlockt,l Scitnlific 155VtJ: RA Pit/Ie me}" tt a/.23, indicate that sulphate particles in clouds illtroduced by fossil fuel burning could be enhancing the brightness of these clouds from \\'hat they \\'ould be naturally (the percent or cloud coverage could also be higher because the additional sulphate aerosols act. to make clouds colloidally more stable -see Section 5 above). Vsing Equation (2), if the increase in albedo is 10%, and the affected area represents 10% of t.he earth's surface, a decrease in TE of 2.7°C would be expected. at II: t, temperatur('S ha\'e not ~n increasing at r('pr('Sl:n ati\'e sites on the Antarctic conlinent despite the conti ued increase in greenhouse gas concentrations. Accor from simul surra ary. Augu in lh ing to Schlesinger's2$ summary of the results vera I GCMs, a doubling of carbon dioxide is ted to cause a ,,'arming of 2°C to 6°C in the air temperature in December, January, Febrund of even larger increases in June. July, and t. Not even a hint of warming is seen, ho"'ever, Antarctic data. Si ilarly, Michaels tt 0/,26 finds a departure of only 9. GREATFET WARMING IS PREDICTED TO BE IN POLAR REGIONS, AND YET WARMING HAS NOT OCCURRED 0,3°C in 1985 above the 100 year mean over most All GCM simulations indicate that global ~'arming should be more pronounced at polar latitudes. Figure 5, reproduced from Sansom2~1sho~'s that since 1960, lion. Figure 5: Time serifs plots for Faraday, Mirny, Base, and Amundsen-Scott. The large amplitude shou's the actual monthly a trend mfan temperatures, component, Scott line the small amplitude line and the dottt'd line 104 Environmental Software, 1991,Vol. 6, No.2 ,. of No th America, despite the model results given in Schl inger's summary which indicates a substantia! "'arm ng should be occurring in that geographic loca- 1 a re rence line the e d points at the 5% trimmed of a reg~ssion are s ou'n by "+" signs (from mean line through Samson24 ). let'el, the rau' Also, data nificant ~ardship. ho\\Oevcr. are in this \\riler's opinion 10. SINCE THE ATMOSPHERE IS A NONLINEARLY ~PONDING SYSTEM. EVEN prematu~eo \VITH ALL RELEVANT PHYSICS FAITH12. AC1<NOWLEDGEr..1ENTS FULLY REP~ENTED. THE GCMS COULD ONLY SIMULATE EXAMPLES OUT OF A The uthor appreciates the discussions \\.ith Pat SPECTRUM OF POSSffiLE ATMOSPHERIC ~fichaels Dave Ra.ndaU, and Tom Vonder Haar regardRESPONSESTO INCREASED GREE~1JIOUSE ing this t pic. Also, Cypress ~finerals is appreciatively GASES The shortcomings described above regarding GC~fs, ho\\.ever, does not suggest that we forego using these tools. GCMs represent an important assessment procedure of potential effects on the global climate pattern, but \\.e must maintain the proper perspective regarding their limits. Climate change is a natural aspect of the atmosphere and has been occurring since the beginning of the earth. Moreover, il is likely that the atmosphere responds chaotically lo an imposed external (e.g. change in solar constant.)or internal (e.g. increased greenhouse gases) change since \\'eather is a highly nonlinear system. If a chaotic response occurs, the future slate of the atmosphere to these changes would be unpredictable with a single GCM result. presenting just. one possibility out of a spectrum of climate responses even if all the physical processes were properly represented. Even the Gaia hypothesis, in ~'hich Lovelock27 proposes that biological responses to changes in the environment damp the resultant net environmental change may not accurately represent the actual respon~ of the earth's atmoophere. Zeng (I 11/,28,for example, use the \"atson and Lovelock29 example of a simplified Gaia response (daisyworld) to show that if the interaction between the biosphere and atmosphere is sufficiently nonlinear. a chaot.ic response \\'ill occur. 11. POLICY RECOM:MENDATIONS Since climate change is a natural feature of the earth, \ve need to husband our resources even if there were no man-caused changes (e.g. Schneider30). \\'ith respect to man's potential influence on climate, the "path-ofleast-regret" is that ".e should immediately adopt policies which mitigate man's impact providing there are no deleterious economic, environmental, or political effects of these policies. Even better, of course, is if these policies result in positive benefits to mankind. C<>nservat ion of fossil fuel resources, for example, and utilization of renewable energy resources represent examples of beneficial activities which should be promoted by government policy makers regardless of the direction of climate change. Recommendations by Rosenfeld and lIafemeister31 represent definite steps \\.hich could be taken to achieve this goal. Policies \\.hich require sig- acknowl ged for their contributions to our investigation of t e influence of changes in cloud albedo on climate. P t of the work reported in this paper \\.as supported u der NSr Grant #ATM-861666'l and #ATM8915265. 1 Dallas McDonald ably completed the ~.ord processing and editorial preparation of the manuscript. 13. REtERENCES Ba i astow, R. and sph ric carbon C.D. dioxide set 'ed airborne fraction. Keeling, concentration 1981: Atrno- and the ob- Carbon Cycle .\/ode/ling, SC PE 16, B, Bolin, Editor, John Wiley and So s, Chichester, 103-112. 2. Bof.n, B., B. R. 0008, J. Jager, and R.A. \,,'arrick, Ed tors, 1986: The G~enhollse Efftct, Climatic Ch nge, and Ecosystems, SCOPE 29, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester. 3. Ha sen, J. and S. Lebedeff, 1987: Global trends of easuredsurface air temp~rat.ure. J. Geophgs. Re .,92,13,345-13,372. 4. Jo es, P.D., S.C.B. Raper, R.S. Bradley, A.F. Di ,P.M. 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Ghan, J.T. Kiehl, H. Le Treut, Z.-X. Li, X.Z. Liang, JF.B. ~Iilchell, J.-J. Morcrette, D.A. Randall, M.R. Riches, E. Roeckner, U. Schlese, A. Slingo, K.E. Taylor, W.M. \\'ashington, R.T. \\'etberald, and I. Yagai, 1989: Interpretation of cloud-climate feedback as produced by 14 atmospheric general circulation models. Scitnct, 245, 513-516. Gulowski, W.J., D.S. Gutzler, and W.C. Wang, 1990: Surface energy balances of lhree general circulation models: Implicalions for simulating regional climate change. J. Climate, (submil- ted). 12. NOAA Report, December 11,1989, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 13. King, D.A., G.E. Bingham, and J.R. Kercher, 1985: Estimating the direct effect of CO2 on soy. bean yield. J. Enriron. ,\Igt., 20, 51-62. 14. Rogers, H.H., R.D. Beck, G.E. Bingham, J.D. Cure, J.M. Davis, W.\\'. Heck, J.O. Rawlings, A.J. Riordan, N. Sionit, J.M. Smith, and J.F. Thomas, 1981: Rtsponst of Vtgetation to Carbon Dioxide. 005: Field studies of plant responses to elevated carbon dioxide levels. Prepared for DOE and USDA. 15. Pielke, R.A., 1984: .\fesoscale meteorological modeling. Academic Press, New York, N."., 612 pp. 16. Pielke, R.A., 1988: E\'aluation of climate change using numerical models. In "Monitoring Climate for the Effects of Increasing Greenhouse Gas Concentrations. Proceedings of a Workshop". R.A. Pielke and T. Kittel, Eds., Cooperative Institute for Research in lhe Almosphere (CIRA), Forl Collins, Colorado, August 1987,161-172. 17. Warren, S.G., C.J. Hahn, J. London, R.M. Chervin, and R.L. Jenne, 1988: Global dislribution of total cloud cover and cloud type amounts over the ocean. Prepared for the United Slates Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. and lhe Nalional Cenler for Atmospheric Research, Boul- der, Colorado. 18. Pielke, R.A. and R. Avissar, 1990: Influence of landscape structure on local and regional climate. Landscape Ecology, (accepted). 106 Environmental Software. 1991,Vol. 6, No.2 19.! Rosenberg, N., ica/ Enrironmcnt. 19i4: .\/Icroc/imatc: \\'iley, ~e'" Tllc lliolog" York. 20, Segal, M" R. A,'issar, M.C, '{cCumber, and R.A. Piclke, 1988: E,'aluation or ,'egetation effects on the generation and modification or mesoscale circulations. J, A/mos, Sci., 45, 2268-2292, 21. Segal,M., W. Schreiber, G. Kallos, R.A. Pielke, J.R. Garratt, J. Weaver, A. Rodi, and J. Wilson, 1989: The impact of crop areas in northeast Colorado on midsummer mesoscalethermal circulations. Mon. ~f'ea. Rtv., 117,809-825. 22. Pielke, R.A. and X. Zeng, 1989: Influence on severe storm development of irrigated land. JVai/. ~f'eG.Dig., 14,16-17. 23. Two~y.l S., R. Gall, and M. Leuthold, 1987: Pollution and cloud refle<lance. In "Interactions Between Energy Transformations and Atmospheric Phenomena. A Surveyof RecentResearch" M. Beniston and R.A. Pielke, Eds., D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordre<hl, Holland, 335348. 24. ! Sansom,J., 1989: Antarctic surface temperature time series. J. Climate, 2,1164-1172. 25. Schlesinger.M .E., 1988: ~fodel projections of the equilibrium and transient climatic changes induced by increased atmospheric CO2. In "Monitoring Climate for the Effecls of Increasing Greenhouse Gas C~ncentrations. Proceedings of a \\'orkshopft. R.A. Pielke and T. Kittel, Eds., Cooperative Instilute for Researchin the Atmosphere (CIRA). Forl C~llins. Colorado, August 1987.3-50. 26. Michaels, P.J., D.E. Sappington, B.P. "ayden, and D. Stooksbury, 1988: Nonthermometric measurement of recent temperature variability over the coterminous United Slates, southern Canada, and Alaska. In "Monitoring Climate for the Effects of Increasing GreenhouseGas C-oncenlrations. Proceedings of a "'orkshop". R.A. Pielke and T. Kittel, Eds., Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere (CIRA), Fort Collins, Colorado, August 1987, 119-134. 27. Lovelock, J.E., 1982: Gaia as seen through the atmosphere. Biominerali:ation and biological mctal accumulation(Eds. P. Westbroekand E.W. de Jong). D. Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, The Nelherlands, 15-25. 28.1 Zeng, ~., R:A. Pielke, and R. Eykholt, ]990: Chaos In Dalsy\\.orld. rt//us, (accepted). OrtrlocItd' Scitntlfic {.!.!ut.!: R.A. P,tlit 29. Watson, A.J. and J E. Lovelo<k, 1983: Biological homeostasis of the global environment: the parable of daisy".orld. Te/lus, 35B, 284-289. 30. Schneider, S,H., 1976: The Genesisstrategy: Climale and global survival. Stephen H. Schneider \\'ilh Lynn E. Mesiro\\', Plenum Press, New York. 31. Rosenfeld, A.H. and D. Hafemeister, 1988: Energy efficient buildings. Scientific A mencan, 258, 78-85. Envirohmental Software, 1991,Vol. 6, No.2 107 Errata R.A. Pielke In Pielke (1991), a factor of 4 was left off of equat applied to global average conditions. For local daytim scaling form provided. S is modified to represent the and time of year. The more appropriate heat budget importance of albedo change is on (1) when this evaluations, it is olar radiation at quation to use in relation is the correct that locale scaling the With this correction equation (2) becomes ~TE = -67 ~A So that a +3% change of albedo over the oceans wo~ld yield an equilibrium temperature change of more than -I.5°C. The equation inlSection 6 should then read ~Te = -176A so that a land-average increase of SA of 1 % would reS1 lt temperature spond of -O.17°C. A decrease of 1% would corr in a change to a of O.17°C equilibrium warming. Similarly, a 25% change in land surface albedo over % of the land surface would yield the same result. f In Section 8, the correction of the original equation (2) O (C2) results in an increase in albedo of 10% over 10% of the Earth's surface woul result in a decrease in T e of O.67°C. The conclusion of the Pielke (1991) paper is not affect clear from even this simple analysis that even relativel characteristics (in this case albedo) can have an imp nificant as the hypothesized enhanced warming cause d by these corrections. It is small changes in landscape ct on global climate as sigby anthropogenically input greenhouse gases. References Pielke, R.A., 1991: Overlooked scientific issues in asses~inghypothesized greenhouse gas warming. Environ. Software, 6, 100-107. I