Download Unit 1 Exam Review - Deerfield High School

Unit 1 Exam Review
• Take a few minutes to review your exam. In a section of
your notebook, take notes on the concepts/questions that
you struggled with.
• In addition, answer the following question:
– When you signed up for this course, what did you think
psychology would be all about? How has that changed
since Unit 1?
– Looking back over Unit 1, what learning strategies have
you used to help you prepare for the Unit 1 exam?
What might you do differently to better prepare you for
the next exam?
Learning
A relatively permanent change in an organism’s
behavior due to experience.
(Behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of innate response tendencies,
maturation, or temporary states of the subject – fatigue, drugs, etc)
How do we learn?
Association
We connect events that occur in sequence
Why does
Dentist = Pain?
Types of Learning
Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observation
“Forget the mind…”
Psychology should based
on observable behavior
Behaviorism
B. F. Skinner
Albert Bandura
Types of Learning
• Classical Conditioning – learning an association between
two stimuli that the organism does not control (EX: a bell
and food, a white rat and a loud noise, a product and a
celebrity)
– Behavior occurs as an automatic response (reflexive responding) to
stimulus. (Stimulus  Behavior/Response)
• Operant Conditioning – learning an association between
a response (behavior) and its consequence (EX: studying
hard and a high test-grade, bar pressing and food)
– Action that operates on environment to produce rewarding or
punishing stimulus – instead of simply reacting to stimuli
(Behavior/Response  Stimulus)
• Observational Learning – imitating the behavior of a role
model
Learning By Observation
Albert Bandura
&
the Bobo doll
Both (+) and (-)
actions can be
learned by observing
others
Observational Learning
Bandura’s Bobo-Doll Experiments
(1961-1963)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vd
h7MngntnI
• Study: 3-5 yr. old children in 4
experimental conditions:
– 1) Live, aggressive model
– 2) Filmed, aggressive model
– 3) Cartoons with aggressive acts
– 4) No exposure to aggression
(control condition)
• Results: Groups 1, 2 & 3 showed
significantly greater no. of aggressive
acts (i.e. hits against bobo doll) than
the control condition
Observational Learning
• Watch the video clip “Mirror Neurons” from NOVA
scienceNOWand take notes on the following:
• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3204/01.ht
ml
– What are mirror neurons? Explain the role that mirror neurons
may play in how we understand and connect with each other.
– Describe the experiment with the monkeys and what it suggests
about mirror neurons
– Describe the use and purpose of mirror neurons by humans
– Describe the experiment involving pictures of different facial
expressions and what it suggests about mirror neurons
– The connection between mirror neurons and autism
– How mirror neurons have enhanced humans' evolutionary process
and survival success.
Observational Learning
Mirror Neurons – set of brain cells that fires both when an animal acts and when
the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron
"mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting.
•
•
•
the neurons that "fire" when a monkey does
an activity also "fire" when the monkey
observes the activity, suggesting that
neurologically doing and watching are the
same.
humans use a similar "mirroring" response
to translate what we see, so that we can
relate to each other and the world. Mirror
neurons tie us to each other's feelings as
well as actions; thereby, potentially
enhancing humans' evolutionary process
and survival success y helping humans
connect with and learn quickly from each
other.
May be a connection between autism and
mirror neurons, a developmental disorder
that impairs language, communication and
social interaction.
Observational Learning
•
•
Conclusions:
– Learning can occur through observation and imitation (i.e. without
conditioning or direct reinforcement)
Applications:
– Parent’s role as models for children
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_s9pG5CWXM&feature=related
• Rodney Atkins “Watching You” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4K-wmQuWfrs
• Ugly Kid Joe “Cats in the Cradle” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T3bht7S-3vI
– Media violence:
• fMRI studies:
– Exposure to violent movies linked to brain area involved in the
inhibition of aggressive impulses (lowered activation)
• Violent video games:
– Reduces sensitivity to violence and suffering of victims
– Players more hostile, less forgiving and believe violence is
“normal”
– Can increase likelihood of aggression
– Conversely, prosocial models can have positive effects
• Prosocial video games:
– Players get into fewer fights at school and found to be more
helpful
Types of Conditioning
Classical
Operant
Process of associating
two stimuli
Process of associating
a response & its
consequence
Lightning
Pulling candy machine
lever
Thunder
Delivery of candy bar
Classical Conditioning
Short Biography
20 years studying digestive system
30 years studying learning
1904 Nobel Prize in Medicine
Ivan Pavlov
Noticed that dogs would
drool in anticipation
of food.
What were dogs
thinking or feeling?
Classical Conditioning
What were dogs thinking
or feeling?
Pointless!
Examine the phenomenon more
objectively using Experiments!
Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Will the dog learn to associate
the arrival of food with a neutral
stimulus (e.g., a bell)?
Classical Conditioning
Terms
Neutral Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Unconditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response
Conditioned Stimulus
NS - bell
UCR - drool in response to food (not learned)
UCS - food (triggers drool reflex)
CR - drool in response to sound of bell (learned)
CS - sound of bell (triggers drool reflex)
Examples of Classical Conditioning
• http://www.bukisa.com/videos/63827_the-pavlov-altoid-theory
• The Office
– NS (rebooting computer noise)  no response
– UCS (altoid)  UCR (salivation/refreshes taste in
mouth)
– NS (rebooting computer noise) + UCS (altoid)  UCR
(salivation/refreshes taste in mouth)
– CS (rebooting computer noise)  CR (salivation/need
to refresh taste in mouth)
Examples of Classical Conditioning
• http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8331168072486928717#
• http://www.thepsychfiles.com/2008/02/episode-47-thelittle-albert-study-what-you-know-ismostly-wrong/
• Little Albert
– NS (white rat)  no response
– UCS (loud noise)  UCR (fear)
– NS (white rat) + UCS (loud noise)  UCR (fear)
– CS (white rat)  CR (fear)
Conditioning Processes
• Acquisition – initial learning of the response
– At first, the white rat by itself caused no special
response. After repeated pairings of the white rat with
the loud noise, the white rat by itself gradually became
more and more likely to cause a learned response
• Short-delayed conditioning – the NS begins just before the
UCS and stops at the same time as the UCS
– The white rat is presented just before the loud noise and is taken
away as the loud noise ends.
Conditioning Processes
• Extinction – decrease in CR without CS or
unlearning a conditioned association
– The learned response (fear) probably became
less common after Little Albert left John
Watson’s lab and the white rat was not
presented with the loud noise
Conditioning Processes
• Spontaneous Recovery – reappearance of
the CR after some time period. Need
additional extinction trials to breaks
association completely
– After extinction, the presentation of the white
rat may still have caused a learned response
(fear) following a long period in which the loud
noise was not heard.
Conditioning Processes
• Generalization – the tendency for organisms
to respond similarly to similar stimuli as the
CS.
– Little Albert’s fear of anything white and furry.
Conditioning Processes
• Discrimination – the ability to distinguish
(discriminate) between the CS and other
stimuli
– Little Albert only being afraid of white rats –
not brown rats or any other white animals.
Examples of Classical Conditioning
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSCotdOh5WY
• Food/Taste Aversion
– NS (sight and taste of pickles)  no response
– UCS (contamination/sickness)  UCR (aversion/disgust)
– NS (sight and taste of pickles) + UCS (contamination/sickness) 
UCR (aversion/disgust)
– CS (sight and taste of pickles)  CR (aversion/disgust)
• Conditioned Taste Aversion (Sauce Bernaise Phenomenon) –
readily learn an aversion to the taste (not to the sight of the
associated restaurant, the plates, people you are with), even if you
got sick hours after eating the food
– Violates the notion that for conditioning to occur, the UCS
(sickness) has to immediately follow the NS/CS (food)
• Biological Preparedness – degree to which biology has made it
more easy or difficult to learn an association. Biological
predispositions of each species dispose it to learn the particular
associations that enhance its survival.
Psych Demonstration
• Air Horn
– NS (saying word “can”)  no response
– UCS (horn/loud noise)  UCR (cringe/jump out of
seat)
– NS (saying word “can”) + UCS (horn/loud noise) 
UCR (cringe/jump out of seat)
– CS (saying word “can”)  CR (cringe/jump out of
seat)
Other Examples of Classical Conditioning
•
•
•
•
Michigan Fight Song
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-fc5os23mI
– NS (Michigan Fight Song)  no response
– UCS (being pinched)  UCR (cry)
– NS (Michigan Fight Song) + UCS (being pinched)  UCR (cry)
– CS (Michigan Fight Song)  CR (cry)
Slasher Movies
– NS (violence)  no response
– UCS (nude women)  UCR (sexual arousal)
– NS (violence) + UCS ( nude women)  UCR (sexual arousal)
– CS (violence)  CR (sexual arousal)
Advertising
– NS (alcohol)  no response
– UCS (lots of friends, attractive people people)  UCR (happy, desire)
– NS (alcohol) + UCS (lots of friends, attractive people)  UCR (happy, desire)
– CS (alcohol)  CR (happy, desire)
Politics
– NS (politician)
– UCS (apple pie)  UCR (feelings of warmth)
– NS (politician) + UCS (apple pie)  UCR (feelings of warmth)
– CS (politician)  CR (feelings of warmth)
Other Examples of Classical Conditioning
•
•
•
Every time you take a shower, someone in the house flushes the toilet causing the water
to turn cold and you become cold. Now every time you hear a toilet flush, you get cold
– NS (toilet flush)  no response
– UCS (cold water)  UCR (feel cold)
– NS (toilet flush) + UCS (cold water)  UCR (feel cold)
– CS (toilet flush)  CR (feel cold)
Fred has a fluffy down pillow with some of the down sticking out of the fabric. When
he first tries out the pillow, a piece of down tickles his nose and he sneezes. This
happens every time he goes to bed. Soon he sneezes every time he lays down on any
kind of pillow.
– NS (pillow)  no response
– UCS (down tickles nose)  UCR (sneeze)
– NS (pillow) + UCS (down tickles nose)  UCR (sneeze)
– CS (pillow)  CR (sneeze)
It is springtime and the pollen from the flowers causes you to sneeze. Soon you are
sneezing every time you see a flower
– NS (flower)  no response
– UCS (pollen)  UCR (sneeze)
– NS (flower) + UCS (pollen)  UCR (sneeze)
– CS (flower)  CR (sneeze)
Other Examples of Classical Conditioning
•
•
•
In order to treat bedwetting, a pad that is sensitive to dampness is placed under sheets.
When this pad becomes wet, it sounds an alarm and you wakeup. Eventually you don’t
need the alarm to wake up, your bladder will wake you up
– NS (full bladder)  no response
– UCS (alarm)  UCR (wake up)
– NS (full bladder) + UCS (alarm)  UCR (wake up)
– CS (full bladder)  CR (wake up)
The smell of food makes you hungry. Soon every time you go into the kitchen, you feel
hungry
– NS (kitchen)  no response
– UCS (smell of food)  UCR (hungry)
– NS (kitchen) + UCS (smell of food)  UCR (hungry)
– CS (kitchen)  CR (hungry)
When you see a scary movie, you always eat a box of thin mints. Now you find that
eating a box of thin mints makes you feel scared.
– NS (thin mints)  no response
– UCS (watching a scary movie)  UCR (feeling scared)
– NS (thin mints) + UCS (watching a scary movie)  UCR (feeling scared)
– CS (thin mints)  CR (feeling scared)
Other Examples of Classical Conditioning
•
An MIT student spent an entire summer going to the Harvard football field every day
wearing a black and white striped shirt, walking up and down the field ten or fifteen
minutes throwing birdseed all over the field, blowing a whistle and then walking off the
field. At the end of the summer, it came time for the first Harvard home football game,
the referee walked onto the field and blew the whistle, and the game had to be delayed
for a half hour to wait for the birds to get off of the field. The guy wrote his thesis on
this and graduated.
– NS (whistle/black-white striped shirt)  no response
– UCS (birdseed)  UCR (birds eating)
– NS (whistle/black-white striped shirt) + UCS (birdseed)  UCR (birds eating)
– CS (referee blowing whistle and wearing black-white striped shirt)  CR (birds
eating)
Examples of Classical Conditioning
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QO253RicE-E
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wwx-Q1tXlxM
• Jaws
– Note: This is an example of second order conditioning – a conditioned
stimulus functions as it were an unconditioned stimulus.
– First Order:
• NS (sharks)  no response (Easy to condition however due to sharp teeth and
evolutionary predator cues our visual system processes)
• UCS (Blood Carnage - pictures, images, stories)  UCR (fear)
• NS (sharks) + UCS (carnage)  UCR (fear)
• CS (sharks)  CR (fear)
– Second Order: CS can become a new UCS
•
•
•
•
NS (soundtrack - Dudah!..... Dudah! Dudah!)
UCS (shark)  UCR (fear)
NS (soundtrack) + UCS (shark)  UCR (fear)
CS (soundtrack)  CR (fear)
Examples of Classical Conditioning
• Drug Use
NS (syringe)  no response
UCS (drug)  UCR (bio change, creates pleasure)
NS (syringe) + UCS (drug)  UCR (bio change)
CS (syringe)  compensatory CR (prepares for bio
change – reduce body’s normal amount of NT to
prepare for extra NT by drug)
– However, this is one reason for tolerance (need larger
and larger amounts of the drug to feel the same effect
and reasons for overdose – change scene or method,
lose compensatory effect
–
–
–
–
Better Applications of Classical
Conditioning
Treatment
of
Phobias
Rats
Snakes
Enclosed Places
Open Places
Dirt
Walrus
Mrs. Walenga’s Phobia
• Acquisition
– NS (ocean)  no response
– UCS (jelly fish sting)  UCR (pain/fear)
– NS + UCS  UCR
– CS (ocean)  CR (pain/fear)
• Extinction
– Systematic desensitization
• Generalization
– Fear response to any ocean, any time of year, photos
• Discrimination
– Fear response is only to Gulf of Mexico at specific time of year
• Spontaneous Recovery
– Need numerous extinction trials to get rid of link
Classical Conditioning Behavior Therapies
•
Counter-conditioning – uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering
unwanted behaviors
– EX: Fear of being in a confined space, such as elevators
• Pairs the trigger stimulus (elevator) with a new response (relaxation)
– NS (elevator)  no response (response of fear at least)
– UCS (listening to music)  UCR (relaxation/upbeat mood)
– NS (elevator) + UCS (listening to music)  UCR (relaxation/upbeat mood)
– CS (elevator)  CR (relaxation/upbeat mood)
– Exposure Therapies – treats anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things
they fear and avoid. With repeated exposure, people can become less anxious to things that once
petrified them.
• Systematic Desensitization – associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing
anxiety-triggering stimuli.
– EX: Fear of public speaking
– Construct a hierarchy of anxiety-triggering speaking situations, speaking up in a small
group of friends to panic provoking situations, such as having to address a large audience
– Next, using progressive relaxation, the therapist would train you to relax one muscle
group after another, until you achieve a drowsy state of complete relaxation and comfort.
– Therapist pairs each anxiety arousing situation on hierarchy with relaxation, until you can
move to a real situation.
• Virtual reality exposure therapy - anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to
simulations of their greatest fears virtually, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.
Classical Conditioning Behavior Therapies
Counter-conditioning – uses
classical conditioning to
evoke new responses to
stimuli that are triggering
unwanted behaviors
Aversive Conditioning associates an unpleasant
state (such as nausea)
with an unwanted
behavior (such as
drinking alcohol)
Classical Conditioning Practice
(pgs 28-29)
1. NS (dog bark)  no response
UCS (bitten)  UCR (whimper)
NS (dog bark) + UCS (bitten)  UCR (whimper)
CS (dog bark)  CR (whimper)
2. NS (jar of pickles)  no response
UCS (eating pickles)  UCR (salivate)
NS (jar of pickles) + UCS (eating pickles)  UCR (salivate)
CS (jar of pickles)  CR (salivate)
3. NS (mutton – sheep meat)  no response
UCS (poison)  UCR (nausea)
NS (mutton) + UCS (poison)  UCR (nausea)
CS (sheep)  CR (fear because expect to get nauseous)
4 . NS (saccharine flavored water)  no response
UCS (drug)  UCR (weakened immune system)
NS (saccharine flavored water) + UCS (drug)  UCR (weakened immune system)
CS (saccharine flavored water)  CR (weakened immune system)
Classical Conditioning Practice
(pgs 30-31)
1.
NS (song “tonight”)  no response
UCS (popped eardrum)  UCR (pain)
NS (song “tonight) + UCS (popped eardrum)  UCR (pain)
CS (song “tonight” or any other song by Smashing
Pumpkins)  CR (pain)
illustrates generalization
2.
NS (Mr. Williams)  no response
UCS (yelled at)  UCR (nervous)
NS (Mr. Williams) + UCS (yelled at)  UCR (nervous)
CS (Mr. Williams)  CR (nervous)
illustrates discrimination – only nervous when he sees Mr.
Williams
3.
NS (Pavlov)  no response
UCS (lemonade mix)  UCR (salivate)
NS (Pavlov) + UCS (lemonade mix)  UCR (salivate)
CS (Pavlov)  CR (salivate)
illustrates discrimination – only salivate at Pavlov’s name,
not Watson’s or Skinner’s name
4.
NS (Space Mountain)  no response
UCS (ill)  UCR (queasy stomach)
NS (Space Mountain) + UCS (ill)  UCR (queasy
stomach)
CS (Space Mountain or any other roller coaster)  CR
(queasy stomach)
illustrates generalization
5.
NS (Abe)  no response
UCS (love)  UCR (beating heart)
NS (Abe) + UCS (love)  UCR (beating heart)
CS (Abe – seeing him or seeing a picture of him)  CR
(love)
illustrates generalization – can see him or see a picture of
him and her heart starts to beat
Different Types of Behavior
Classical
Respondent Behavior
Behavior occurs as an automatic response to stimulus.
Associating different
stimuli that the organism does not control.
Operant
Operant Behavior
Action that operates on environment to produce
rewarding or punishing stimulus.
Associating your behavior with its’ consequences
(e.g., teaching a child to say “Please”)
Fear response to
a white beard
versus
Saying “Please”
to elicit praise
Operant Conditioning
• Discovering Psychology: Learning – start
at 11:30 or 15:30.
http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.ht
ml?pid=1529
• Take notes on the following:
–
–
–
–
B.F. Skinner’s beliefs about free will!
Psychology’s ABC’s
Skinner Box
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning  Operant Behavior
• Learning an association between a response (behavior) and its consequence
(EX: studying hard and a high test-grade, bar pressing and food)
• Action that operates on environment to produce rewarding or punishing
stimulus – instead of simply reacting to stimuli (Behavior/Response 
Stimulus)
– Also called Instrumental Learning – learning is controlled by
consequences
• Based on Law of Effect - actions that were rewarded become
more likely to occur and actions that were punished or not
reinforced become less likely to occur (Behavior 
Consequence  decrease or increase in behavior in future)
• Acquisition is based on shaping - gradual rewarding the
organism as it approaches the desired behavior.
• Skinner’s ABCs
Operant Conditioning  Operant Behavior
• Skinner’s ABCs
– A (antecedent) = stimulus/environmental cues (situation) present at time of
reinforcement. What is happening before behavior occurs?
– B (behavior - accidental)
– C (consequence) = reinforcement
– D (determines the frequency of deliberate behavior in future)
* Behavior is most likely to occur in
situations similar to the one in which it
has
been reinforced
B. F. Skinner
Skinner elaborated on Thorndike’s
Law of Effect
“Rewarded behavior is likely
to reoccur”
B. F. Skinner
(1904-1990)
External influences,
not internal thoughts
& feelings, govern
behavior.
E. L. Thorndike
Skinner’s Experiments
Fave Subjects
Rats & Pigeons
Fave Operatus
Skinner Box
Fave Procedure
Shaping
Shaping
Guiding current behavior
toward some desired
behavior through
successive approximations
Principles of Reinforcement
Reinforcer - any event that increases the frequency
of the preceding event
Positive Reinforcers
Introduce (+) stimulus
(e.g., food)
Negative Reinforcers
Remove (-) stimulus
(e.g., electric shock)
Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior!
Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Stimulus Type
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not
desired/bad)
Supply a stimulus (+)
Remove a stimulus (-)
Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Stimulus Type
Supply a stimulus (+)
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Positive Reinforcement
(Adding a good/desired
stimulus – strengthens or
encourages behavior in
future. EX = presenting
food, money, praise,
attention, or other rewards)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not
desired/bad)
Remove a stimulus (-)
Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Stimulus Type
Supply a stimulus (+)
Remove a stimulus (-)
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Positive Reinforcement
(Adding a good/desired
stimulus – strengthens or
encourages behavior in
future. EX = presenting
food, money, praise,
attention, or other rewards)
Negative Punishment
(Subtracting a good/desired
stimulus – weakens behavior or
discourages behavior in future.
EX = time-out, removing some
pleasant stimulus or taking away
privileges such as TV watching
or use of automobile)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not
desired/bad)
Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Stimulus Type
Supply a stimulus (+)
Remove a stimulus (-)
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Positive Reinforcement
(Adding a good/desired
stimulus – strengthens or
encourages behavior in
future. EX = presenting
food, money, praise,
attention, or other rewards)
Negative Punishment
(Subtracting a good/desired
stimulus – weakens behavior or
discourages behavior in future.
EX = time-out, removing some
pleasant stimulus or taking away
privileges such as TV watching
or use of automobile)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not
desired/bad)
Positive Punishment
(Adding a bad stimulus –
weakens behavior or
discourages behavior in
future. EX = delivering a
pain-producing or
otherwise aversive
stimulus, such as a
spanking or an electric
shock)
Operant Conditioning versus Punishment Matrix
Stimulus Type
Supply a stimulus (+)
Remove a stimulus (-)
Appetitive Stimulus
(something desired/good)
Positive Reinforcement
(Adding a good/desired
stimulus – strengthens or
encourages behavior in
future. EX = presenting
food, money, praise,
attention, or other rewards)
Negative Punishment
(Subtracting a good/desired
stimulus – weakens behavior or
discourages behavior in future.
EX = time-out, removing some
pleasant stimulus or taking away
privileges such as TV watching
or use of automobile)
Aversive Stimulus
(something not
desired/bad)
Positive Punishment
(Adding a bad stimulus –
weakens behavior or
discourages behavior in
future. EX = delivering a
pain-producing or
otherwise aversive
stimulus, such as a
spanking or an electric
shock)
Negative Reinforcement
(Subtracting a bad stimulus –
strengthens behavior or
encourages behavior in future.
EX = removing or terminating
some pain-producing or
otherwise aversive stimulus, such
as an electric shock, buzzer, )
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Scenario #1:
• Negative reinforcement – “Since you cleaned your
room, you will no longer have to stay inside!”
• Punishment – “Since you did not clean your room,
you will have to stay inside!”
Scenario #2:
• Negative reinforcement – “Since you got to AP
Psych on time, you will not get a tardy detention!”
• Punishment – “Since you got to AP Psych late, you
will get a tardy detention!”
Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior!
Punishments ALWAYS weaken behavior!
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
1. PR
2. NP
3. PP
4. PR
5. PR
6. NR
7. NR
8. NP
9. PR
10. NP or PP (However, time out is usually considered NP)
11. NR
12. NR
Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior!
Punishments ALWAYS weaken behavior!
More Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcers
Innately satisfying,
Secondary
not learned
Reinforcers
(e.g., getting food, water, Associated with primary
warmth, relief from pain) reinforcers & learned
(e.g., $ can buy food,
praise leads to feeling
happy)
Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior!
POSITIVE REINFORCERS
NEGATIVE REINFORCERS
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
Food
Money
Electric shock
Rejection
Water
Grades
Intense heat
Failure
Sex
Status
Pain of any
sort
Criticism
Warmth
Praise
Suffocation
Avoidance
Still More Reinforcement
Immediate Reinforcement
Reinforce immediately preceding
behavior (e.g., nicotine)
Delayed Reinforcement
Reinforcement at some point
after behavior occurs
(e.g., paychecks)
Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior!
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous - every time behavior occurs (rare)
or
Partial - not every time behavior occurs
(learning is slower but more resistant to extinction)
Partial Reinforcement
(a pigeon will peck 150,000 times without reward)
Behavior-Based Reinforcers
Fixed Ratio - reinforce every n responses
Variable Ratio - reinforce after ?? responses
Time-Based Reinforcers
Fixed Interval - reinforce after fixed time
Variable Interval - reinforce after ?? time
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA&feature=PlayList&p=483DE7E9
D04B2BFF&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=3
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Behavior-based reinforcers (ratio = # of responses)
• Fixed Ratio = reinforce every “n” responses
– Factory workers make 10 clocks = earn $100
– Every time you get a 100% on a test = get $5
– Buy 3 sandwiches = get 4th free
• Variable Ratio = reinforce after ?? responses)
– Finding parking in busy mall (you need to drive and look, not just
wait)
– Most gambling behaviors (slot machines)
– Fly-fishing
– Perfect golf shot
– Selling vacuums door to door
Schedules of Reinforcement
•
Time-based reinforcers (interval = time period to pass before you complete a behavior
and get reinforcer (does not matter how many times you complete the action)
• Fixed Interval = reinforce after fixed time
– Students waiting near door at end of class, shuffling books near end of
class
– Watching Gilmore Girls every Tuesday
– Doing extra credit before end of quarter
– Known quizzes and tests
– Work for salary – get paid on the 15th of every month
• Low Response Rate – rapid responding near time of reinforcement
(cognitive processes - animals learn predictability)
• Variable Interval = reinforce after ?? time
– “pop’ quizzes
– regular fishing
– raising hand in class
– pacing while waiting for phone to ring
– waiting for doctor
Comparisons of Schedules of
Reinforcement
TYPE
MEANING
OUTCOME
Fixed
Ratio
Reinforcement
depends on a
definite number of
responses
Activity slows after
reinforcement and
then picks up
Variable
Ratio
Number of
responses needed
for reinforcement
varies
Greatest activity of
all schedules
Fixed
Interval
Reinforcement
depends on a fixed
time
Activity increases
as deadline nears
Variable
Interval
Time between
Steady activity
reinforcement varies results
Reinforcement Schedules
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
VR
FR
VI
FI
VI
VR
FI
FR
VR
VI
FR
FI
Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement
FORM OF
REWARD
INFLUENCE ON
PERFORMANCE
Fixed interval
Reward on fixed
time basis
Leads to average
and irregular
performance
Fast extinction of
behavior
Fixed ratio
Reward tied to
specific number of
responses
Leads quickly to
very high and
stable
performance
Moderately fast
extinction of
behavior
Variable interval
Reward given after
varying periods of
time
Leads to
moderately high
and stable
performance
Slow extinction of
behavior
Variable ratio
Reward given for
some behaviors
Leads to very high
performance
Very slow
extinction of
behavior
SCHEDULE
EFFECTS ON
BEHAVIOR
FI, VI, FR, or VR?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
When I bake cookies, I can only put one set in at a time, so
after 10 minutes my first set of cookies is done. After another
ten minutes, my second set of cookies is done. I get to eat a
cookie after each set is done baking.
After every 10 math problems that I complete, I allow myself
a 5 minute break.
I look over my notes every night because I never know how
much time will go by before my next pop quiz.
When hunting season comes around, sometimes I’ll spend all
day sitting in the woods waiting to get a shot at a big buck.
It’s worth it though when I get a nice 10 point.
Today in Psychology class we were talking about Schedules
of Reinforcement and everyone was eagerly raising their
hands and participating. Miranda raised her hand a couple of
times and was eventually called on.
1.
FI
2.
FR
3.
VI
4.
VI
5.
VR
FI, VI, FR, or VR?
6. Madison spanks her son if she has to ask him three times to
clean up his room.
7. Emily has a spelling test every Friday. She usually does well
and gets a star sticker.
8. Steve’s a big gambling man. He plays the slot machines all
day hoping for a big win.
9. Snakes get hungry at certain times of the day. They might
watch any number of prey go by before they decide to
strike.
10. Mr. Vora receives a salary paycheck every 2 weeks.
11. Christina works at a tanning salon. For every 2 bottles of
lotion she sells, she gets 1 dollar in commission.
12. Mike is trying to study for his upcoming Psychology quiz.
He reads five pages, then takes a break. He resumes reading
and takes another break after he has completed 5 more
pages.
6. FR
7. FI
8. VR
9.
VI
10. FI
11. FR
12. FR
FI, VI, FR, or VR?
13. Megan is fundraising to try to raise money so she can go on
the annual band trip. She goes door to door in her
neighborhood trying to sell popcorn tins. She eventually sells
some.
14. Kylie is a business girl who works in the big city. Her boss is
busy, so he only checks her work periodically.
15. Mark is a lawyer who owns his own practice. His customers
makes payments at irregular times.
16. Jessica is a dental assistant and gets a raise every year at the
same time and never in between.
17. Andrew works at a GM factory and is in charge of attaching 3
parts. After he gets his parts attached, he gets some free time
before the next car moves down the line.
18. Brittany is a telemarketer trying to sell life insurance. After so
many calls, someone will eventually buy.
13. VR
14. VI
15. VI
16. FI
17. FR
18. VR
Handout 7-7
• Sensitivity to Punishment (BIS)
– Score one point for a “yes” to
each of the odd-numbered
items
– Range = 0-24  higher scores
reflecting greater sensitivity to
punishment
• Sensitivity to Reward (BAS)
– Score one point for a “yes”
answer to each of the evennumbered items.
– Range = 0-24  higher scores
reflecting greater sensitivity to
reward
Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory – two biological systems in the brain
1.
Behavioral activation system (BAS) – responds to rewards and regulates approach behavior.
Accelerator motivates approach behavior.
•
A person with a highly reactive BAS is especially sensitive to incentive and reward and
thus is vulnerable to impulsivity.
•
Reactions to going to a concert: high sensitivity to BAS – euphoria thinking about
going; low sensitivity to BAS = knows it will be enjoyable but calm
2.
Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) – responds to punishments and regulates avoidance
behavior. Brakes that stop behavior.
•
A person with a highly reactive BIS is especially sensitive to threat and punishment and
thus is vulnerable to anxiety.
•
Student reactions to poor performance on a test: high sensitivity to BIS = panic;
low sensitivity to BIS = hardly bothered.
Handout 8-4
• Measures our tendency to consider potential distant outcomes of current
behaviors as well as the tendency for current behaviors to be influenced by
these potential distant outcomes.
• Scoring:
– Reverse the numbers you gave in response to statements # 3, 4, 5, 9, 10,
11, 12.
– Total the numbers in front of all twelve items.
– Total scores can range from 12 to 60. Higher scores reflect greater
consideration of future consequences.
• Research suggests that greater consideration of future consequences is
positively linked to conscientiousness, optimism, hope and an internal locus of
control. Higher scores are also positively related to general concern for
health, and negatively related to cigarette and alcohol consumption. Those
with higher scores were also more likely to be environmentally conscientious
by recycling, driving a fuel-efficient car, and using a water-saving shower
head.
• Marshmallow Test: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amsqeYOk-w&feature=related
Biological Preparedness
• Instinctive Drift – instinctive behaviors interfere with learned behaviors.
Animals cannot be trained to do anything.
– Pigeons easily learn to flap their wings to avoid being shocked and to peck
to obtain food, because it is natural for them to flee with their wings and
eat with their beaks. However, they have a hard time learning to peck in
order to avoid a shock or to flap their wings to obtain food. Biological
constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally
adaptive.
– Miserly Raccoons - Training some raccoons to deposit coins in a piggy
bank. They were successful in shaping the raccoons to pick up a coin and
put it into a small box, using food as the reinforcer. However, when they
gave the raccoons a couple of coins, an unexpected problem arose: the
raccoons wouldn’t give the coins up. They would sit and rub the coins
together like so many little misers. Associating the coins with food had
brought out the raccoons’ innate food washing behavior. Raccoons often
rub things together to clean them.
Why would parents want to use reinforcement
over punishment? Carrot or Stick Approach?
• Problems with Punishment:
• Punishment does not guide toward acceptable
behavior (doesn’t tell you what you should do)
• Behavior is not forgotten – merely suppressed (may
reappear in other situations). Punishment +
reinforcement = more effective
• Triggers strong emotional responses (fear, anxiety,
anger)  disrupt normal functioning
Does reinforcement always work
to increase behavior?
• NO! Why?
– Overjustification Effect: Promising a reward for doing what one
already likes to do.
• The intrinsic motivation might be lost. Humans must
recognize the reinforcer has value and is effective in changing
their behavior; therefore, undermining the intrinsic motivation.
– EX: Earn a full ride to play sports; however, the athlete
starts to hate the sport they play even though they are
being paid. Now must play the sport for the scholarship.
Playing the sport became overjustified.
– EX: Drummer quits band REM at the height of their
success. He reports that he has “lost the love” for the
music. Reports later that the $, touring were not enough.
Music lost its appeal. The act of playing music became
overjustified
Is There No Cognition?
Can we think?
Do we think?
Rats can learn maze even
without reinforcement
Cognitive Maps
Cog Map rats perform
as well as Reinforced rats
Latent Learning
• E.C. Tolman – experiment
with rats.
• Some rats went through maze
for food goals, while others
were given no reinforcement
for several days.
• After 10 days, rewards were
put in with the rats that had
previously been given no
rewards for 2 or 3 trials.
• Those rats reached the food
box as quickly as the rats that
had been getting reinforcement
for over a week.
• Rats learn about mazes in
which they roam even if they
are unrewarded for doing so.
Rats learn about their
environments in the absence of
reinforcement.
Operant + Classical Conditioning
• Escape Learning – an organism acquires a response that decreases or
ends some aversive stimulation.
– Shuttle Box – cage with two compartments connected by a
doorway, which can be opened and closed by the experimenter.
Animal learns to escape a shokc by running to the other
compartment. Negative reinforcement
• Avoidance Learning – an organism acquires a response that prevents
some aversive stimulation from occurring. Escape learning often leads
to avoidance learning.
• *Distinguish classical from operant conditioning by asking: Is the
organism learning associations between events that it doesn’t control
(classical conditioning)? Or is it learning associations between its
behavior and resulting events (operant conditioning)?
Classical Versus Operant
Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Review Exercises: Classical Conditioning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
NS = rolled up newspaper, UCS = spanking, UCR = fear, CS = rolled up newspaper, CR = fear.
Principle: Nothing special beyond simple acquisition. Perhaps generalization to others holding
newspapers.
NS = sight of monkeys, UCS = attack, UCR = pain, CS = sight of monkeys, CR = apprehension,
tense. Principle: Extinction is occurring because of repeated exposure to the CS (sight of
monkey) without another exposure to the US (attack). Additionally, you might note that a bit of
counter-conditioning is occurring-- she is feeling calm, positive feelings while being exposed to a
stimulus (monkeys) that used to cause fear.
NS = screech of tires, UCS = car accident, UCR = tense, scared, CS = screech of tires, CR = tense,
scared. Principle: Higher-order conditioning is occurring here-- The dangers of a car accident
have been well-learned, even if never experienced. However, the mental images of an accident
become a powerful CS in their own right. Discrimination-- given the context of the situation
(accompanying stimuli), screeching tires have better ability to predict possible danger at an
intersection than at a race track.
NS = Donna, UCS = romantic relationship, UCR = arousal, CS = Donna, CR = arousal. Principle:
Again, a bit of higher-order conditioning occurring. Jack had come to expect (sexual) stimulation
within a relationship-- a connection made through experience, expectations, etc. Initially,
extinction, because of no stimulation (CR) occurred in the presence of Donna (CS). The other
principle, spontaneous recovery, occurred when he saw her again after a delay of time. That's the
reemergence of a conditioned response after it has been extinguished (and why people should be
very cautious at high school reunions!)
NS = taste, sight, and smell of chicken, UCS = bacteria/virus, UCR = sick, nauseous, CS = taste,
sight, smell of chicken, CR = sick, nauseous Principle: Generalization is happening-- not only
does he react to chicken, but other foods that are similarly "fowl." This is the opposite of stimulus
discrimination.
Review Exercises: Operant Conditioning
Stimulus-Response
Reinforcement vs.
Punishment
Schedules of
Reinforcement
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
S
R
S
S
R
R
S
S
S
R
R
S
PR
NP
PP
NR
PR
PP
NP
NR
PR
PP
PP
NP
PR vs NP
VR
FI
FR
VI
FI
FR
FR
FR
VI
VR