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
Much of Darwin’s theory
of evolution is still widely
accepted among the
scientific community.
A brief history of evolution
Contrary to popular
belief, Darwin was not
the first person to
describe the concept
of evolution, but he
was the one who gave
it its driving force.
PLATO:
Greek philosopher
 Philosophy of idealism which held
that there are 2 coexisting
worlds: an ideal eternal real world
and an illusionary imperfect world
that humans perceive with their
senses.


 Went
wrong: when
he said that only
ideas were
absolute, he viewed
physical world as
not genuinely
real...Did Not know
God.
Greek philosopher, Father of Biology.
 Recognized that organisms range from
relatively simple to very complex, all
living organisms could be arranged on a
scale of increasing complexity.
 Since their were no vacancies, no
mobility along the ladder of life was
possible...species are fixed and do not
evolve.


• Problem;
The only scientific
error was that Aristotle
searched for the meaning of
living nature only. God was
left out of the picture.
Swedish physician
and botanist,
developed binomial
nomenclature. Father
of Taxonomy
 He was convinced
that species were
fixed and
unchanging.•

He wanted to impose order on the
large number
of Plants and Animals
 He epitomized the attitudes of the
17th through
19th centuries.... For the greater
glory of God

Note: His taxonomic system
became a focal point in Darwin's
argument for evolution.
Founder of paleontology
 He stood against the theories of
evolution.
 He believed that it was only logical
that God
would use the same basic plans for
many different animals and plants
when he created them.

The bodies of man and animals have
certain basic similarities in their
overall designs.
 • Note: Evolutionists interpret
similarities of comparatives as
proof for evolution.

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However comparative anatomy: furnishes
evidence of a single Creator.
Comparative anatomy shows that the
bodies of man and animals have a basic
similarity in their overall design.
It furnishes some damaging evidence
against evolution ex the similarities
between such structures as the squid eye
and the human eye.
 leading
geologist of Darwin's time.
 Believed that the geological
processes occurring now have
always been occurring at the same
rate.. .theory of
Uniformitarianism
 The
geological processes do not
occur at the same rate all over
the world today, or even
from year to year in the same
region.
This theory is refuted by 2nd
2nd PETER 3:3—6

"their shall come in the last days
scoffers...saying all things continue
as they were from the beginning of
the creation. For this they willingly
are ignorant of, that by the world of
God the heavens were of old, and the
earth standing out of the water and
in the water: Whereby the world
that then was, being overflowed with
water, perished."

• Felt that animals exercised the
needed parts of
their bodies, strengthening some
traits and causing others to
degenerate...enhanced traits could
be passed on to their
offspring...called use disuse theory
Jean Baptiste Lamarck


(early 1800’s) proposed:
“The inheritance of acquired
characteristics”
He proposed that by using or not using
its body parts, an individual tends to
develop certain characteristics, which
it passes on to its offspring.
“The Inheritance of Acquired
Characteristics”

Example:
A giraffe acquired its long neck
because its ancestor stretched
higher and higher into the trees
to reach leaves, and that the
animal’s increasingly lengthened
neck was passed on to its
offspring.
Was born on February
12, 1809 in
Shrewsbury, England.
 Studied medicine at the
University of Edinburg,
but left without a
degree.
 Enrolled at Chris college
at Cambridge
University to study for
clergy....received his
degree
in 1831.

• Set sail from England December 1831 on the
ship "the HMS Beagle" as the ships
Naturalist.
• Due to seasickness, Darwin spent most of his
time ashore while the ship's crew surveyed
the coast....believed that he was infected
with either yellow fever or dengue fever
here...which caused health problems later in
life.
From 1831 to 1836 Darwin
served as naturalist aboard
the H.M.S. Beagle on a
British science expedition
around the world.
He observed much variation
in related or similar species
of plants and animals that
were geographically isolated
from each other.
These observations were the
basis for his ideas.
• Collected thousands of specimen's
including 13 types of finches from
Galapagos Islands...some
were unique to individual islands,
while others were found on two or
more islands that were close
together.
Darwin presumed that populations of individuals
changed over time, and, in 1844, he developed the
concept of the driving force for evolution. It wasn’t
until many years later that he published his idea.
“I have called this principle, by which
each slight variation, if useful, is
preserved, by the term Natural Selection.”
—Charles Darwin from "The Origin of Species“,
1859
Influenced by Charles Lyell who published
“Principles of Geology”.
Darwin’s dilemma
• It was a letter Darwin
received
on
June
18,
.
1858, that
precipitated the
publishing of The
Origin of Species.
• Alfred Russell
Wallace, exploring in
Asia, had come to the
same conclusion as
Darwin
• The Origin of
Species published
1859)
• Within a few years
after publication,
many biologist were
convinced that
evolution was a
fact.
• “…tell me, is it on
your grandfather’s or
grandmother’s side
that you are
descended from an
ape.”
• -Bishop Samuel
Wilberforce to Darwin
defender, Thomas
Huxley
Huxley was a passionate defender of
Darwin's theory -- so passionate that he
has been called "Darwin's Bulldog".
• “If…the question is put to
me would I rather have a
miserable ape for a
grandfather or a man highly
endowed by nature and
possessed of great means
and influence and yet who
employs these faculties
and that influence for the
mere purpose of
introducing ridicule into a
grave scientific discussion
I unhesitatingly affirm my
preference for the ape.”
• -Huxley’s response
• Two main points:
1. Species were not created in their
present form, but evolved from
ancestral species.
2. Proposed a mechanism for
evolution: NATURAL SELECTION


Darwin did not reject biblical creation;
he knew nothing about it.
Even though he studied for the ministry
at Cambridge, it is obvious from his
writings that he did not have a clue as
to what the Bible actually taught
requiring Special Creation...that those
imperfections of nature were the result
of the fall, and the world is not now the
way God originally made it.


Darwin was made susceptible to many of
his errors by the fact that some
Christians had been reading their own
preconceived hypothesis into the book of
Genesis.
Darwin's observations of nature showed
him that these statements were false,
and Darwin mistakenly thought that
these came from the Bible and therefore
dismissed the Bible as being in error on
the subject.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Geology: theory of Uniformitarianism
Comparative Anatomy: Homologous structures
Taxonomy
Embryonic evidence: Closely related organisms
go through similar stages in their embryonic
development. The pharyngeal arches of human
embryos never act as gills, they are a stage of
development and are just embryonic pouches that
later develop into the thymus gland, middle ear
canal and parathyroid gland.
5.
Molecular biology: An organisms
hereditary background is reflected
in its genes and their protein
products. Due to the complexity
of the cell and its chemical
processes made it unlikely to
support evolution after more
knowledge was gained about
cellular processes.
EFFECT OF EVOLUTION:
 In
the Descent of Man,
Darwin appears to be
endorsing voluntary
eugenics, but does not
advocate coercion:
EFFECT OF EVOLUTION:


We must therefore bear the undoubtedly
bad effects of the weak surviving and
propagating their kind; but there appears
to be at least one check in steady
action, that the weaker and inferior
members of society do not marry so
freely as the sound; and this check
might be indefinitely increased by the
weak in body or mid refraining from
marriage, though this is more to be
hoped for than expected" Darwin ,
Descent of Man p 502
• .
Eugenics

Some 20th century evolutionists
have taken
Darwin's ideas much further
Natural Selection
• Individuals with favorable traits are more
likely to leave more offspring better suited for
their environment.
• Also known as “Differential Reproduction”
• Example:
English peppered moth (Biston betularia)
- light and dark phases
Natural Selection:


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Darwin said that nature, in the form of the total
environment selected “ those characteristics that
made an organism better able to survive.
Ex: English pepper moth:
• In England the air was cleaner and pepper
moths were mostly light
colored with only a few dark colored ones. The
light blended on the birch
and lichen., the black did not...so birds saw
the black moths and moth the
light. As pollution darkened the environment,
dark moth population
increased and light moth population decreased
Reply:

There were both light and dark pepper
moths present from the beginning. No
new kinds of moths appeared. Only the
ratios shifted. Both dark and light moths
can interbreed, thus are the same
species. Survival of the fittest is not
evolution. It does not explain how new
life forms change from one into another
or can suddenly appear.
The survival and reproduction of
individuals w/ certain advantageous
characteristics
This is not evolution and is
accepted by both
evolutionist and creationist
Adaptive Radiation
Darwin discussed emergence of
numerous species from a common
ancestor.
 Ex. Galapagos finches:
 13 different types of finches in the
Galapagos islands. Lead Darwin
toconclude the finches shared a
common ancestor.

Reply:
• Finches may develop larger
bills, or change color, or grow
longer tail feathers, but they
still belong to the same kind,
they never become ducks,
ostriches, or
eagles....microevolution
Punctuated Equilibrium
• First proposed 1972 By Niles
Eldrige and Stephen Gould.
• Says that Evolution occurs in fits
and spurts separated by long
periods of little change
Reply:
. No classification system can show
intermediate forms...only existing
species.
.
With regard to the horse
series, it is a collection of
unrelated mammals that share a
similar overall body plan.


Problems with horse series:
Eohippus had 18 pr of ribs, but its
descendant Orohippus had only 15
pr of ribs, Pliohippus had 19pr of
ribs while modern horses have 18 pr
of ribs. Thus a jumping back and
forth with ribs disappearing and
reappearing like magic.
.

George Gaylord Simpson
, world's foremost evolutionary
paleontologist
 said, "The uniform, continuous
transformation of Hyracotherium
into Equus, so dear to the hearts
of generations of textbook writers
never happened in nature." (George
G. Simpson, Life Of The Past,
p.119)

George Gaylord Simpson

Simpson, after stating that nowhere in the world is there
any trace of a fossil that would close the considerable gap
between Hyracotherium ("Eohippus"), which
evolutionists assume was the first horse, and its supposed
ancestral order Condylarthra, goes on to say "This is true
of all the thirty-two orders of mammals…The earliest and
most primitive known members of every order already
have the basic ordinal characters, and in no case is an
approximately continuous sequence from one order to
another known. In most cases the break is so sharp and
the gap so large that the origin of the order is speculative
and much disputed." (Tempo and Mode in Evolution, G.
G. Simpson,1944, p 105)
Thought to have been
the transitional
species between fish
and amphibians..
Evolutionist say that living fossils, like
the coelacanth, ginkgo, and horseshoe
crab, are examples of organisms that are
relatively unchanged from their distant
ancestors. Exterior of a horseshoe crab,
an example of a living fossil.
Reply:

1938 a coelacanth was caught off
the coast of the Indian ocean. It was
discovered to live deep within the
ocean, rarely above 500 feet of
surface, thus could not crawl onto
land. No resemblance to amphibian
anatomy internal or external
horseshoe crab

horseshoe crab, an
example of
organisms that are
relatively unchanged
from their distant
ancestors…then
where is the
“evolution”???????
Archaeopteryx:

Often presented as an
evolutionary link between a small
dinosaur (maniraptoran) and
modern birds.
Reply;
Even if the fossil proves that
Archaeopteryx and theropod dinosausrs
were so much alike that birds would have
to be reclassified as subtype of dinosaurs
(is possible), this still does not imply birds
evolved.
 It only indicates that God created
dinosaurs and birds with very similar
design characteristics.


Cladistic taxonomy classifies organisms
according to the order in time that
branches arise along a phylogenetic tree,
(a visual model of the inferred
evolutionary relationships among
organisms) with out considering the degree
of divergence..
 The
product is a cladogram.; a
diagrammatic tree consisting
of a series' of dichotomous
forks. Each branch point is
defined by novel homologies
unique to the various species
on that branch.



Cladistics is favored by some evolutionary
biologist because it makes describing evolution
the goal of taxonomy.
Probably the most serious drawback to cladistic
terminology is its use as a rhetorical tool by
evolutionists.
Ex using cladistic terminology can make it more
difficult to argue that mammals did not evolve
from fish, for example, because by cladistic
definition mammals are fish.
Reply:
A major difficulty in cladistics is finding
characteristics that are appropriate for each
branch point.
 Despite these problems, the growing acceptance
of cladistics in biology has had a few positive
effects:
 Instead of looking at fossil and dreaming up
hypothetical ancestors, many cladists now use
cladograms for careful comparisons of
fundamental traits— then try to group similar
animals together.

Reply:

Cladograms can be used by
creationists as a tool to more
objectively discern similarities and
differences between animal
species.
Geological Time Evolutionist
believe the earth to
be 4.5 billion years old
–As a result of these large
numbers, scientists have
named large chunks of time
based on dominant events of
the time.
– c. Evolutionist say the fossil record seems to
support this
Constant
Sudden
Changes
Time
Change
**Known as: Punctuated Equilibrium
-a. Darwin, however, explained evolution
as a gradual accumulation of variations
**Known as: Gradualism
Time
Change
The fossil record
 When
asked to provide evidence of
long-term evolution, most scientists
turn to the fossil record.
 Within this context, fossil horses are
among the most frequently cited
examples of evolution
A. The fossil record
The prominent Finnish
paleontologist Bjorn Kurten wrote

. : 'One's mind inevitably turns to that
inexhaustible textbook example, the horse
sequence. This has been cited -- incorrectly more
often than not -- as evidence for practically every
evolutionary principle that has ever been coined.'
This cautionary note notwithstanding, fossil horses
do indeed provide compelling evidence in support
of evolutionary theory." (The Fossil Record And
Evolution: A Current Perspective, B. J.
MacFadden Horses, Evol. Biol. ISBN: 22:131158, 1988, p. 131)
Supposed Evidence
from Comparative
Anatomy
Comparative Anatomy- the
study of structural
similarities and differences
between living things
Homologous Structures parts
of different organisms that have
similar structure, but different forms
and functions
 Example: human arm and hand,
whale flipper, cat leg, bat wing, bird
wing
Homologous Structures- same
structure: different function
analogous structures parts
of different organisms
that have similar forms and
functions, but different
internal structure (example:
wing of a bird, wing of an
insect)
Vestigial Structures


remnants of structures that were
once functional in an ancestral
form
Examples -appendix, wisdom
teeth, coccyx (tailbone)
Note comparative anatomy:
furnishes evidence of a single
Creator.
 Comparative anatomy shows that
the bodies of man and animals have
a basic similarity in their overall
design because of the one creator.

Comparative Embryology

Structurally different species show
common patterns in embryological
development
»a. presence of gill slits, 2-chambered
hearts, tails
»b. the longer the embryos show
similarities, the more closely related
the species
1860s German Darwinist Ernst Haeckel
made some drawings to illustrate the
distorted view that embryonic development
supported evolution. Haeckel faked his
drawings.
 The embryos are not nearly as similar as he
made them out to be; furthermore, Haeckel
was very selective in his choice of
embryos.

Haeckel used mammals from the same
order and omitted embryos from 2 orders
including kangaroos and platypuses.
 He also omitted the 2 classes of
vertebrates that include lampreys and
sharks. and amphibians that include
frogs because they didn’t embryonically
support evolution

 Haeckel’s
fakery was exposed by
his own contemporaries, who
accused him of fraud, yet his
drawings are still used in modern
biology books
 C.
Evidence from DNA
– 1. Each individual organism has its
own specific DNA
structure (DNA fingerprint)
– 2. The closer the structure of DNA
between organisms (species), the closer
the evolutionary relationship Ernest
Haekel

Since experience shows that intelligence is the
only presently acting cause of information, we
can infer that intelligence is the best
explanation for the information in DNA.

When philosopher Stephen Meyer Published
this inference in a biology journal, with
supporting scientific evidence, Darwinist tried
to ruin the career of the journal’s editor
Artificial Selection
• The selective breeding of
domesticated plants and animals by
man.
Question: What’s the ancestor of the
domesticated dog?
Answer: WOLF
Question: Did evolution occur
Answer: No, no new species..still a
dog
Macroevolution
• The origin of taxonomic groups higher
than the species level
• Change from one species to another.
Microevolution
• Evolutionist say:
• A change in a population’s gene pool
over a secession of generations.
Evolutionary changes in species over
relatively brief periods of geological time.
• Response: no its just adaptation to the
environment…. We are ok with
adaptation
Five Mechanisms of Microevolution
1. Genetic drift:
Change in the gene pool of a small
population due to chance.
2. Gene Flow:
The gain or loss of alleles from a
population by the movement of
individuals
or gametes.
Five Mechanisms of Microevolution
3. Mutation:
Change in an organism’s DNA that
creates a new allele.
4. Non-random mating:
The selection of mates other than
by chance.
5. Natural selection:
Differential reproduction.
Speciation
• The evolution of new species.
• Microevolution: adaptation..no new animal
Coevolution
• Evolutionary change, in which one
species act as a selective force on a
second species, inducing adaptations
that in turn act as selective force on the
first species.
Example:
Humming birds and plants with
flowers with long tubes
Did a new animal form or did
adaptation occur ?
Observation and Inference
Let’s do a little exercise…
•What is the size and
nature of the
organisms?
•Were the tracks made
at the same time?
•How many animals
were involved?
•Can you reconstruct
the events that
occurred?
The following summer
some more digging
revealed more of the
track. What additional
information have you
gained that allows you
to refine your answers?
•Were the tracks
made at the same
time?
•How many animals
were involved?
•Can you
reconstruct the
events that
occurred?
•In what direction
did the animals
move?
•Did they change
speed or direction?
In the final summer of
the excavation one last
part of the footprint
trail was uncovered.
Does this section
provide additional
information to refine
your hypothesis?
So what happened?
What part of your
hypothesis is
observation? What
part is inference(act
of reasoning from factual
knowledge or evidence) ?
What part is
conjecture?(guesswork
This is how science is
done.
Except guesswork
must be testable based
on the scientific
method…Evolution is
not testable
Modern Primates : divided into 2
groups
• 1. Prosimians:
• lemurs, lorries, pottos, tarsiers, bush
baby, aye aye
• 2. Anthropoids:
• monkeys, apes, humans
• , had color vision, rounded skull,
diurnal, stereoscopic vision, social
organization
• Potto
• 1. Old world monkeys: Catarrhine group
• Means narrow nose group
• Lack prehensile tail and have callous
buttocks
• Arboreal and terrestrial
• 2. New world Monkeys: Platyrrhine group
• Means broad nose group
• Have prehensile tail and no callous
buttocks
• Arboreal
• Limber shoulder joints allowing for
Brachiation (swinging)
• Dexterous hands for hanging and
manipulating food.
• Sensitive fingers with nails, not claws
• Eyes close together on front of face
giving overlapping field of vision for
depth perception (needed for
brachiation)
• Excellent eye hand coordination
• Parental care
• Hylobates: gibbons
• Pongo: orangutans
• Gorilla
• Pan: chimpanzee
• Man regulates body temperature by
eccrine (sweat) glands, apes do not.
• respiratory anatomy: man has a 1
descended larynx, apes do not.
• apes have vibrisae (whiskers), man
does not.
• Differences in the musculature,
especially the hands.
• Skull differences: including teeth
arrangement with humans having a
parabolic tooth arrangement (u
shaped arch) and apes having a
slightly
rectangular tooth arrangement