Download Roman Politics and Govt. 11.08

Western Civilization is forever indebted to the people of ancient Greece and Rome. Among the
numerous contributions these societies made are in the fields of art, literature and philosophy;
however, perhaps their greatest gift to future generations was the modern perception of
government. The contemporary idea of democracy, while borne out of the political struggles in
the city of Athens, came to fruition in the Roman Republic, surviving, despite the constant
interference of the emperor, through the Roman Empire. Although the present definition of
democracy has changed considerably, one must still recognize its early evolution in that eternal
city, Rome.
FROM MONARCHY TO REPRESENTATION
The Roman Republic emerged out of what one historian called “the ashes of the monarchy.”
Years underneath the unyielding yoke of a king taught the people of Rome that they had to
safeguard against the rule, and possible oppression, of one individual. The real authority or
imperium of the republic, and later empire, was to be divided among three basic elements elected non-hereditary magistrates, a Senate to advise and consent, and popular assemblies.
Unfortunately for many people in Rome, in the early stages of the Republic, power lay solely in
the hands of the elite, the old landowning families or patricians. The remainder and largest
share of the city’s population - the plebeians - had few if any rights. This unequal division of
power would not last very long.
THE CONSULS
Instead of a king, and to guard against despotism, the new government chose consuls, two in
number. These individuals were not elected by the populace but appointed by the popular
assembly, the Comitia Centuriata. Each consul served a one-year, non-consecutive, term,
although he could serve a second or third term later. As both political and military heads of
state, consuls possessed supreme executive power, commanding the army, presiding over the
Senate, and proposing legislation; however, as a safeguard each consul had the ability to veto
the other’s decision - an intercessio. As a symbol of their authority, they wore a traditional
woolen toga with a purple border, sat upon a special chair or sella curulis, and were attended by
at least six special assistants or lictors. Their symbol was the fasces, the bundle of rods and
axe. At the end of their one-year term, they were held accountable to the popular assembly for
any decisions made or actions taken. Many consuls would have their duties extended by
becoming a proconsul, a governor of one of the many Roman provinces. Initially, while the
position of consul was open only to patricians, plebeians became eligible in 367 BCE and by
342 BCE legislation dictated that one of the two consuls had to be a plebeian. Famous figures
who served as consuls include Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassuss, Pompey the
Great, and Mark Antony.
THE SENATE
Unlike later parliamentary bodies, the Roman Senate had little if any legislative authority, for
that power wrested in the hands of the popular assemblies. Originally open only to the
patricians, the Senate had what one might call “indirect” executive power called auctoritas. And,
while it had no legal power, it still held significant influence, serving as an advisory body to the
consuls and later emperors. Members of this conservative body were unpaid and served for life
unless found guilty of public or private misconduct. Senators were forbidden to engage in
banking or foreign trade.
Throughout most of its existence, the Roman Senate remained the domain of the wealthy. And,
while its ability to influence leadership decreased over time, especially under the reign of the
emperors, membership in this hallowed institution varied. During the age of the kings when it
served as a council or patres et conscripti, its number was firmly established at 100; however,
later, under Tiberius and Gaius Gracchi during the 2nd century BCE, the number was
increased to 300. A century later, Sulla, who hoped to enact serious land reforms, would triple
this sum when he enlarged the Senate to 900. While Julius Caesar would add another hundred,
bringing the total to 1,000, Emperor Augustus set its membership at 600.
While the Senate may have lacked any genuine legislative authority, it did have fundamental
responsibilities that made its opinion essential to the functioning of Roman government. First
of all, the senators not only discussed both domestic and foreign policy but supervised relations
with foreign powers. They directed the religious life of Rome, and most importantly, controlled
state finances. Initially, after the fall of the monarchy, senators were named by the consul, but,
with the passing of the Lex Ovinia in the 4th century BCE, this power was transferred to the
censor, and it was the censor who could add new members. Sessions of the Senate were called
by the magistrates, who would provide an agenda of the topics for discussion. And, since the
meetings were held in private to avoid public scrutiny, unlimited freedom of speech allowed
each senator to give his opinion or senatus consultum.
This power to influence the opinions of both the magistrates and public allowed a number of
prominent senators to emerge and among these were Cato the Elder, his grandson Cato the
Younger, Marcus Junius Brutus, and lastly, Marcus Tullius Cicero. The first, Marcus Porcius,
known to history as Cato the Elder or Cato the Censor, was a foremost orator and statesmen.
Although remembered for his opinions on the Republic’s declining morality, he is better known
for his rant on the Senate floor during the final years of the Punic Wars. Carthage, he said,
must be destroyed. “Carthago delenda est.” Of course, in the end, Rome would follow his
suggestion and eventually raze the beaten city. Cato the Younger followed in his grandfather’s
footsteps. A supporter of Pompey and vocal critic of Julius Caesar, he chose suicide rather than
succumb to the dictator. Next, his son-in-law, Brutus, along with Senators Decimus, Cimber,
and Gaius Trebonius, participated in the assassination of Julius Caesar. And, finally, there was
the famed orator, lawyer and politician Cicero, another vocal critic of Caesar and idealistic
defender of the Republic. Although not a participant in the murder of Caesar, he was a
supporter of, and sought clemency for, the assassins. Cicero escaped Rome but was pursued
by Caesar’s adopted son and heir Octavian and murdered.
THE ASSEMBLIES
Instead of authority lying in the Senate, power to pass laws was given to a number of popular
assemblies. First, there was the Comitia Curiata, a legislative body dating back to the days of
the kings which evolved into the Comitia Centuriata. Next, representing the plebeians there was
the Concilium Plebis, and, lastly, also dating back to the time of the monarchy, there were the
various smaller tribal assemblies.
Although many may not view these assembilies as truly democratic, until the emergence of the
empire they held the power of the people in their hands. After the fall of the monarchy, the
original Comitia Curiata, representing the three major tribes, lost the right to enact laws but
retained, temporarily, the power of lex curita de imperio - the authority to confirm the naming of
the magistrates; it also witnessed the appointment of priests, adoptions and wills. However, over
time, it became largely ceremonial, and in its place the very conservative Comitia Centuriata -
another wealth-based assembly- emerged. The membership of this new body was divided into
centuries (one hundred men), 373 in total. Each century voted as a block; therefore, the
wealthier centuries outvoted the “poorer” ones. Unlike the other assemblies, who met in the
Forum, the Centuriata met on the Campus Marcus or Field of Mars outside the city. Its duties
included electing various magistrates (consuls, praetors, and censors), enacting laws, declaring
war and peace, and invoking the death penalty on Romans who were arraigned on political
charges.
Aside from the Centuriata, there were the Concilium Plebis or the Council of the Plebs and the
Comita Tributa or tribal assemblies. As stated earlier, the Council of the Plebs emerged from the
Conflict of Orders and represented the concerns of the plebeians. Like the other assemblies,
they voted along tribal lines with each tribe having one vote. They enacted laws or plebiscites
that pertained initially to the plebeians but eventually became binding to all citizens. They
named tribunes or tribuni plebis and held trials for non-capital offenses. Each plebeian was
required by law to take an oath, a pomerium, to support the decisions of the tribunes.
Next, there were tribal assemblies, established by the Valerio-Horatian Laws of 449 BCE and
which consisted of both patricians and plebeians. These assemblies were divided into the 35
tribes, based on one’s ancestors, and could be summoned by a consul, praetor or tribune. They
dealt with minor public business and elected quaestors, aediles, and military tribunes. They also
voted on legislation put forth by the magistrates and served as a court of appeals on non-capital
cases.
During the time of the Republic, these various assemblies were the voice of the citizens of
Rome, and although not fully democratic in the modern definition of the word, they allowed at
last some portion of the Roman citizenry to be heard. Their essential role in Roman government
was crucial enough that the army inscribed on their military standards the letters SPQR Senatus Populusque Romanus or Senate and Roman people.
THE TRIBUNES & THE RULE OF LAW
Initially, as one might have gathered, the real authority of the republic lay in the hands of the
patricians; however, this power could not and would not remain. The plebians, who comprised
the majority of the army and did most of the real work, rebelled, going on strike and demanding
an equal voice in the government. Out of this struggle came the Conflict of Order, a class “war”
that lasted from 494 to 287 BCE. It was a fight that brought about significant change: a plebeian
assembly, the Concilium Plebis. Through this new congress, the plebeians could elect tribunes
who, like consuls, served for one year. Their primary function was to safeguard plebeian rights
against patrician abuse. Their duties were in many ways similar to that of the consuls; however,
they could veto any magistrate decision as it related to the plebeians. Later, to further protect
the rights of the plebians, the Twelve Tables also called the Ten plus the Two was enacted as
the first record of Roman law - there had never been a written constitution in Rome. By the 4th
century BCE all citizens had the right of provocatio populum - the right to appeal the decision of
a magistrate, and by 287 BCE the Lex Hotensia stated that laws passed by the Concilium Plebis
were binding to all people, even patricians.
THE MAGISTRATES - PRAETORS, QUAESTORS & AEDILES
In the early years of the Republic the consuls realized that they needed lesser magistrates to
oversee various administrative functions - some of these offices had existed under the king.
Many individuals would later use these lesser positions as a path to a consulship. This “path”
was called the cursus honorum. First among these “lesser” magistrates were the praetors who
were the only ones besides the consuls to hold imperium power with the authority to not only
preside over the Senate but also command the army. Besides serving when the consuls were
away, their official function was to oversee the judicial duties of the Republic, holding both civic
and provincial jurisdiction.
Then there were the quaestors, the financial officers, holding power of quaestores aerarii or
control of the treasury located in the Forum of Rome. They collected both taxes and tributes.
Another important individual was the aedile. Initially appointed to administer the temples, his
duties expanded throughout the early years of the Republic (he disappeared with the onset of
the empire). This official had a multitude of responsibilities such as supervising public records
and managing public works (i.e. roads, water and food supply) as well as the markets, festivals
and games. In addition, since the members of the Senate and Concilium Plebis wanted to keep
their proceedings a secret from public scrutiny, the aediles had custody of their records.
THE CENSORS & MAGISTER POPULI
Next, there was the censor - often these officials were former consuls. The position was viewed
as the pinnacle of an individual’s career. Under the king and later the Republic, this person not
only oversaw public morality but took the census, registering both citizens and their property. He
was elected every four to five years and held the position for only eighteen months. The position
was popular with many former consuls because it came with several unique benefits. Besides
taking the census, he could censure a person or even disqualify him from voting. The censor
also approved all public works contracts. One of the more notable of the early censors was
Appius Claudius who not only sanctioned the first aqueduct but commissioned the Appian
Way, the road from Rome to Capua. Another, Cato the Elder, believed that Rome was declining
morally and as a result expelled several Roman senators because of their supposed bad
behavior.
Lastly, one must not overlook a unique if not rare “public” official - the dictator or magister
populi. In times of extreme emergency, this person was appointed to serve for six months;
however, during this period he held complete authority. The last person to hold this position was
Julius Caesar - he was named by the Senate to serve for life. Unfortunately for Caesar, “life”
lasted only until the Ides of March. His death brought the end of the Republic.
The Power of an Emperor
As Rome expanded its borders northward into Gaul, further east into Asia, and southward into
Africa, the government of the Republic was unable to cope and so entered the first emperor,
Augustus, and the birth of an empire. Under the authority of the emperor, the popular
assemblies all but disappeared and the Senate became more and more ceremonial. They would
only really endorse the wishes of the emperor. Augustus held supreme executive authority,
awarded by the Senate, and granted powers beyond that of either a consul or tribune - consular
imperium and tribunicia potestates - with the ability to not only introduce legislation and veto
laws but also command the army. With the consent of the Senate, Augustus took the title of
princeps meaning “first citizen.” He assumed the title of consul and provincial governor which
gave him control of a majority of the military. He controlled the imperial patronage and no one
could hold office without his consent. To maintain authority and to protect himself from his own
“Ides of March,” he created the Praetorian Guard. Several emperors such as Caligula’s uncle
Claudius were “named” by the Praetorian Guard - rubber-stamped by the Senate. While one
should remember that the emperor Caligula was also removed by the same Praetorian Guard.
Augustus also interfered with the religion of the empire. In his attempt to cleanse the reclining
morality of Rome he chose to resurrect the old “religion” by rebuilding decaying temples,
reviving old religious ceremonies and assuming the title of Pontifex Maximus or Chief Priest. To
the average citizen, he was the father of the country or pater patriae. This almost worship of
the emperor would ultimately morph into the imperial cult. During the empire, the duty of the
government was simple - to maintain peace and order, the Pax Roman or Roman Peace.
The Roman government of the old Republic had created a unique system of the division of
power which was a safeguard against oppression by any single individual. Power, for the most
part, lay with a voting public. While not perfect by any definition of the word, it allowed some of
the people to have a say in how their government operated. There were elected officials and a
representative body. Of course, as long as there were games, festivals, and grain, the average
Roman citizen was happy. Under the emperor, the government changed and the emperor
became the ultimate decision maker, he had the last word. Considering the context of ancient
times and contemporary forms of government, and taking into account its albeit limited
representative elements, Rome must, nevertheless, remain an outstanding example of a
successful ancient government.
A LITTLE ON THE EMPORERS
Caesar
The first Roman to seize the opportunities for glory provided by Britain was Julius Caesar.
Having essentially conquered Gaul by 56 BC, he found himself in a position where he was
compelled to return to Rome and disband his army, unless he could find an excuse to stay in
the field. He found that excuse in Britain. By claiming that the British tribes had helped the Gauls
he had just cause to invade. In fact, as his own writings and the letters he sent to Cicero
indicate, he was much more interested in the glory he would gain for crossing the Great Ocean
and in the wealth of silver rumoured to be on the island, than in any so-called security risk.
His first invasion in 55 BC seriously underestimated the British and was a near disaster. His
second expedition in 54 BC was more successful but by then he had received the accolades he
desired and was complaining to Cicero that the rumors of silver were greatly exaggerated. He
pulled out of the island, exacting tribute and hostages and concentrated on pacifying the
troublesome tribes of Gaul before crossing the Rubicon with his army and returning to Rome as
its most powerful son. His power and prestige were so great, in fact, that his enemies were
forced to assassinate him, sparking the civil war that destroyed the Republic.
Augustus
One might legitimately ask why, if Britain was such a land of opportunity, Caesar's ultimate
successor Augustus had no interest in it. Strabo makes it perfectly clear that despite the
perceived wealth of the country, Augustus did not think that it was worth conquering. These
comments have often been used to argue that Britain was not economically viable to the
Empire. Yet to argue this is to misunderstand the way the Roman system worked. Cost did not
come into it, except as a reason to justify inaction.
There was nothing to be gained for Augustus in invading Britain. Caesar had already won the
prestige for crossing the Great Ocean and claiming to have settled the country. There was more
kudos then in conquering Germany north of the Elbe or beating up on Rome's favourite enemy,
the Parthians (the precise geographical equivalent of modern-day Saddam bashing) than in
belittling his adoptive father's claims. It was not until the German frontier was closed by the
disaster of AD 9 in which Varus lost three legions at Teutoberger Wald and Parthia became too
strong to seriously contemplate war that any Roman emperor could seriously contemplate a
return to Britain.
Caligula and Claudius
In AD 39, Caligula amassed a large army on the Rhine in preparation for an invasion of Britain.
However, at the last minute, he changed his mind and ordered the troops to gather cockle shells
from the beach instead, claiming in his Quixotic way to have won a great triumph over Neptune.
The story is probably apocryphal but I like to think that the cabal of officers who assassinated
him two years later still bore a grudge from this embarrassment on the Rhine.
In his place they elevated his uncle, Claudius, who by virtue of his stutter had been passed over
as a fool. Claudius was no such thing and he understood that in order to survive he needed a
triumph.
In the monolithic nature of Roman military bureaucracy, the army assembled for Caligula's
abortive invasion was still largely intact and kicking its heels on the Rhine, so it made perfect
sense to use it for its original purpose.
Vespasian
The Claudian invasion of AD 43 was the making of several Roman careers, not least that of a
young legionary commander called Vespasian. At the decisive Battle of Medway it was he who
crossed the river at the head of both his legion and a band of 'Celtic' auxiliaries, and routed the
Britons. Whilst Claudius arrived to gather his laurels on the back of an elephant in Colchester,
Vespasian marched west to storm Maiden Castle and Hod Hill with such ruthless efficiency that
the catapult bolts used to subdue them can still be dug out of the ground to this day.
The reputation he established on this campaign overrode his disgrace at having fallen asleep
during one of the new Emperor Nero's recitals later in his career and it bought him the
command of three legions in the Jewish war of AD 66.
This placed him in a perfect position to challenge for the imperial purple during the civil war of
AD 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors. His two main rivals were Otho (supported by
the ex-governor of Britain, Suetonius Paulinus) and Vitellius (supported by the British legions).
Otho was killed by Vitellius who was in turn killed by Vespasian, who became emperor.
Paulinus
The governorship of Suetonius Paulinus, the ex-governor of Britain whose support tipped the
balance in favor of Otho at the start of the war, illustrates what those who received a posting in
post-invasion Britain hoped to gain out of it. Tacitus says that when Paulinus arrived in Britain
'He was ambitious to achieve victories as glorious as his rival Corbulo's reconquest of Armenia.'
Consequently, he planned to attack the isle of Anglesey, which was controlled by druids and
provided a refuge to those disaffected Britons ousted by the inexorable Roman conquest.
Britain was at this time very much a wild frontier, with all the opportunities for glory that this
entailed; so wild, in fact, that while the governor was away in Wales the province erupted into
the Boudiccan Revolt. This had been prompted by the over-zealous exploitation of the natives
by those in power. Centurions assigned to supply saw a chance for profiteering and veteran
colonists established at Colchester were only too willing to steal land from the natives in an
attempt to make a killing on the new frontier. Instead, it was they who were massacred in their
thousands.
Paulinus quelled the revolt with ruthless efficiency but his methods were frowned upon by the
new procurator (finance official), Classicianus. Classicianus' influence was such that he could
have Paulinus removed from office. Yet Paulinus' prestige had been so enhanced by his sojourn
in Britain that even though he had a high profile on the wrong side in the ensuing civil war, he
was untouched by the purges that followed. Classicianus meanwhile became so rich as
procurator that he could afford a tomb as big as a small house, which can now be found in the
British Museum.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/
http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Government/