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Download Chp 11.2: Nucleic Acid structure and sequence
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DNA was discovered(?) by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. Theorized by Gregor Mendel in the mid 1800s. DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid. It is a molecule made from a long pattern of 4 different pieces called ‘nucleotides.’ DNA contains a patterned ‘code’ that is unique to each person. This is called the ‘Genetic Code.’ The Genetic Code is read as directions by cell ribosomes to produce EVERYTHING about your body—its features, coloring, blood type, even personality and intelligence. 4 Nucleotides together in DNA DNA’s basic shape is a twisted ladder. A. The outside supports of DNA’s ‘ladder’ is an alternating pattern of sugar and phosphate molecules. B. The inside ‘rungs’ of the ladder are 1 of the 4 Nitrogen-based molecules –these molecules make the actual Genetic Code’s pattern. The 4 N-bases are… 1. Adenine (A) 2. Thymine (T) 3. Cytosine (C) 4. Guanine (G) Each and every thing made by, done, or built by the body is done when cells read the genetic code in DNA as directions to make or do something. The nitrogen-based molecules of DNA’s code are always paired together with another. This is called Complimentary Base Pairing. Because of their molecular shape, each nitrogen base pair will ONLY pair up with another pair. The pairing-up (compliment) rule is… 1. Guanine ALWAYS compliments with Cytosine 2. Adenine ALWAYS compliments with Thymine The DNA itself is divided into sections, “chapters”, and pieces for organization reasons. A. 1 DNA is divided into 46 ‘chapters’ called Chromosomes. Human DNA has 46 chromosomes Monkey DNA is 42 chromosomes Dog DNA has 76 chromosomes Fruit Fly DNA has 8 chromosomes Potato DNA has 48 chromosomes Each chromosome is divided into thousands of small sections called Genes. Each Gene is divided into section of 3 base pairs called a Codon. Everything in the body are made from carbon-based molecules called proteins. Proteins are made by combinations of 20 ‘ingredients’ called amino acids. proteins are made when the cell reads the Genetic Code as directions to assemble amino acids into proteins. The proteins themselves are used to do things like repair the body, create new hormones and fluids, and perform certain processes, like digestion. The first Codon (3 base pair set) tells the ribosome what the gene is, like a title page of a book. The next codons are the step-by-step directions how to combine amino acids to make the protein. The very last codon tells the ribosome that the job is finished, and it can stop working (conveniently called the ‘Stop-Codon’) DNA Replication is the process used to make daughter chromosomes during Mitosis. 1. When a cell copies DNA, the Twisted DNA strand straightens, like a ladder. 2. An enzyme called DNA Polymerases separates the 2 backbones of the DNA molecule between the Nitrogen Bases, forming 2 half-strands of DNA—like a zipper. 3. After splitting the molecule, a new half on DNA is made. 4. The new half is made to match the original DNA half using Nitrogen Base Pairing (C + G, T + A) 5. Each original DNA molecule half is given a new matching half, creating 2 new strands of DNA DNA = Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid RNA = Ribonucleic Acid RNA is a copied piece of a DNA molecule that contains a certain gene and is used to create characteristics. --A Copy of a gene is used to make proteins instead of the original DNA code in order to protect the original DNA from corruption. 1. DNA = entire genetic code— RNA = only 1 gene/part from your DNA. 2. DNA = twisted double strand— RNA 1 single strand. 3. DNA Nitrogen Bases= A, C, G T RNA Nitrogen bases = A C G and Uracil (replaces Thymine) Step 1 –Transcription --RNA Polymerase enzyme separates a piece of DNA containing a certain gene, like (hair color) Step 1 –Transcription --The enzymes then create RNA (copied DNA Gene segment) using Nitrogen Base Pairing from the Genetic Code. Step 3; After the RNA is made, the DNA is closed together again. Step 4: Translation—The “code” of the newly made RNA is sent out of the cell nucleus and sent to ribosomes. The ribosomes translate RNA codes into the directions to make proteins for traits. (like color pigments) Remember: DNA is basically a set of directions that tell cells how to construct your traits or how a cell should be made. A mutation is the result of DNA that has been copied wrongly or made incorrectly whenever normal body cells replicate or when an egg cell becomes fertilized . These errors in DNA can be caused by long-term chemical or radiation exposure. These errors in Gene copies can either replace the correct, normal Genetic Codes with a different Code, or leave out a piece of a trait’s code completely. Mutation in a regular body cell’s DNA as it replicates itself will create a new, irregular, harmful cell known as Cancer Cells. DNA mutations during the conception of an organism lead to birth defects, Genetically linked diseases, or Albino creatures –an example of a harmful mutation of the genes used to make the human skeleton. Although many mutations are harmful to cells and organisms, some are actually helpful, and can create improved versions of an organism.