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Basic Learning Processes
in Infancy and Childhood
Week 3 Child Psychology
Task 1: something you found from the
video
What types of research design?
1. The Correlational Design
2. The Experimental Design
Field experiments
Quasi-experiment
3. Case studies and the single-case design
Single-case Design
What research methods?
Task 2: Discuss the answer for the question
you chose. Each group choose 1 question.
• Write it on the board and explain.
• Display an answer to a question.
Questions
• What are the basic principles of habituation, classical
conditioning, and operant conditioning? What does recovery
from habituation tell us about the habituation process?
• What are an unconditioned stimulus, and unconditioned
response, a conditioned stimulus, and a conditioned response?
• How do positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
negative punishment, and positive punishment affect
behavior?
• Why is observational learning an important component of
learning theory? What evidence exists for imitation in early
infancy? What is the significance of deferred imitation?
Habituation
• The gradual decline in intensity, frequency, or duration of a
response to the repeated occurrence of a stimulus.
• Boredome
• Learning
Dishabituation
• Recovery from habituation
• Perceives the new stimulus as different from the old one.
• Low-birth weight, brain-damaged, and younger babies tend
to habituate less rapidly than older more mature infants
(Krafchuk, Tronick, & Clifton, 1983; Rovee-Collier, 1987)
• An infant’s rapid habituation and recovery from habituation
to new stiuli are associated with greater cognitive capacities
in later childhood and adolescence (Bornstein et al. 2006;
Dougherty & Haith, 1997)
Classical Conditioning
• A neutral event paired with a stimulus that triggers an inborn
reaction can begin to elicit a response similar to the one
initiated by the original stimulus.
• (A neutral event) Nipple: unconditioned stimulus (UCS) 
(Paired with a stimulus that triggers an inborn reaction; response)
Sucking: Unconditioned response (UCR)
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Odor with nipple 
• Conditioned response (CR): sucking response only with odor
without nipple
X
USC  USR; USC +CS  UCR; CSCR
CS
Stroke
forehead
USC
Sugar
solution
CS
Stroke
forehead
CR
Sucking
UCR
Sucking
USC  USR; USC +CS  UCR; CSCR
CS
Tapping
on the
shoulder
USC
Bitter
medicine
CS
Tapping
on the
shoulder
CR
Running
away
UCR
Running
away
What kind of classical conditioning in
ELT?
CS
USC
CS
CR
UCR
Operant Conditioning
• The frequency of spontaneous, sometimes novel behaviors
changes as a result of positive and negative consequences.
• Rewards (positive reinforcement)
• The removal of aversive events (negative reinforcement)
• To decrease when followed by the loss of rewards (negative
punishments)
• Or an aversive outcome (positive punishment)
Operant Conditioning
• Positive; when a behavior occurs it causes a stimulus event
that either increases the rate of the response (reinforcement)
(praises) or decreases it (punishment)(stop nagging).
• Negative: when a behavior occurs, it leads to the removal of
a stimulus that either increases the rate of the response
(reinforcement ) (increase yelling) or decreases it (punishment)
(taking something good to a child away from him/her)
Increases
Decreases
Delivered
Removed
Positive reinforcement
(increase behavior by delivering a
desired stimulus)
Positive Punishment
(Decreases behavior by delivering an aversive
stimulus)
Child says thanks -
praises and cookie
Child swear to parents (behavior)
Father punch him (delivering an aversive
stimulus)
Child don’t swear (decreases behavior)
Negative reinforcement
(increases behavior by removing an
aversive stimulus)
Negative punishment
(Decreases behavior by removing a desired
stimulus)
Child stops swearing (behavior)
Father less punching (removing an
aversive stimulus)
Students don’t go to school (behavior) 
Teachers grounds him in the school
Increases
Decreases
Delivered
Positive reinforcement
(increase behavior by delivering a
desired stimulus)
Positive Punishment
(Decreases behavior by delivering an aversive
stimulus)
Negative reinforcement
(increases behavior by removing an
aversive stimulus)
Negative punishment
(Decreases behavior by removing a desired
stimulus)
Removed
ELT?
Increases
Decreases
Delivered
Positive reinforcement
(increase behavior by delivering a
desired stimulus)
Positive Punishment
(Decreases behavior by delivering an aversive
stimulus)
Negative reinforcement
(increases behavior by removing an
aversive stimulus)
Negative punishment
(Decreases behavior by removing a desired
stimulus)
Removed
Observational Learning
• Individuals often learn and reproduce behaviors important to
the community by observing the activities of others, and
others, in turn, may provide further behaviors and guidance
that can be imitated.
• Observe  interprete  choose  imitate  use.
When does imitation become possible?
• From newborns.
• What these imitative behaviors mean?
• Infants younger than 8 ~ 12: imitate when they think they
can imitate. (Piaget)
• e.g. tongue protrusion sucking (Anisfeld, 2005)
• Communication (Meltzoff and Moore, 1999)
When and what does imitation mean?
• 6 months: waving, saying ah, tapping a table (Jones, 2007)
• They display deferred imitation, the ability to imitate a
model’s behavior hours, days, and even weeks after
observation.
• ( 2 year olds ELT Class video)
• Remove a mitten from a puppet’s hand, shake it, and try to
put it back on the puppet after observing this sequence of
actions performed by a model twenty –four hours earlier.
Flexibility and Selectivity in their
imitations.
• 14 ~ 18 months: more likely to imitate an adult’s action that is
accompanied by the verbal expression “ There!” Intentional
“Whoops” a mistake. (Carpenter et al., 1998).
• When the behaviors of another person appear to be intentional
or geared toward reaching a goal, very young children are more
likely to imitate their actions than when the purpose is unclear to
them (Carpenter et al., 2005).
• 3 yr olds: children are able to decide on whether their own
solution to achieving a goal that requires a complex procedure,
such as opening a drawer is better to use than an alternative
method modeled by another person (Williamson et al., 2008)
Other Forms of Learning
• Implicit learning: learning about complex events without
awareness, maybe responsible for acquiring substantial
knowledge about language, categories, and procedural
routines that accompany many motor behaviors.
•  Perceptual learning : the visual-spatial environment, cooccurring relationships, e.g., banging a certain thing makes a
certain sound, a person and a voice, daily routine.
•  Statistical learning: associations are formed because some
events, the sounds expressed within a particular language,
co-occur in a statistically predictable order (Saffran et al.,
1996)
• In what other ways may infants and children be learning?
• By being in a certain context for a long time.
• Why might learning be a critical element in accounting for
sociocultural differences in the many different kinds of
behaviors infants and young children display?
• (In terms of observational learning what they see is what they
learn and according to the selectivity of young children in
their imitation, children imitate something is purposeful and
leading them to a certain goal e.g., bowing, say ‘please’. And
also this theory tells that children imitate adults’ behavior to
communicate.
• Also different culture has different reinforcement on a certain
behavior. It creates different reinforcement and stimulus to
develop a child to learn a lesson.
What are some examples of observational
learning that you have seen infants display
in their interactions with others?
• Imitating babbling, facial expressions, smile vs smile, angry vs
angry.
• Communication purpose : mother without facial expression or
response children cry or stop watching her and change their
interests
• Why do you think infants and children often imitate the
behavior of others?  to communicate, for fun.
• Break
Audition and Auditory Perception
• What evidence exists to show that the fetus can detect
vibroacoustic stimulation?
• What are potential benefits to the fetus if given extra external
auditory stimulation?  no evidence but some researches are
saying they (the fetus) show strong responsivity to the sound.
• What are potential disadvantages from such extra stimulation?
make influence on their natural growth of organs since the
sounds they hear in the mother’s womb amplifies the sound
from outside and it may hurt their hearing ability and brain
developments (Richards et al., 1992)
What evidence exists to show that the fetus
can detect vibroacoustic stimulation?
• Rain wave patterns, heart rate changes, and activity level observed
on ultrasound scans reveal responses to vibroacoustic stimulation
(Kisilevsky & Low, 1998)
• Low-frequency sounds the kind that are produced in human
speech, are detected by the fetus sometimes as early as twenty –
three weeks of age.
• Newborns prefer to listen to the sounds they heard before birth
(DeCasper & Spence, 1986) Dr. Seus Story read by mom before
born for three hours affected their sucking rate after the birth.
• Infants prefer to listen to their mother’s voice (DeCasper & Fifer,
1980)
What are the basic auditory capacities
of the infants?
• Hearing
• By about 6 months of age, babies are able to detect and
discriminate numerous features of sound, such as its
frequency and intensity, almost as well as do adults (Saffran,
Werker, & Werner, 2006)
• Hearing ability of the fetus can be detected and easily cured
before born.
How does Sound Localization develop?
• The ability to locate a sound in space by turning their heads
or eyes in the direction of the sound.
• 6 ~ 8 months: prefer sounds from reachable objects than
unreachable ones.
What sound patterns do infants prefer
to listen to?
• Two and three month olds do recognize changes in tempo,
the rate at which sounds occur and intervals between brief
bursts of sound that denote simple rhythmic change.’
• Infants show clear preferences for certain ausitory events.
• Prefer to listen to a song or lullaby directed by an adult to
another infant over the same song or lullaby by the adult
singing alone
• A lower-pitched lullaby over a higher-pitched lullaby.
Preferred sound
• Original Mozart Minuet over changed sequenced Mozart
Minuet (Trinor & Heinmiller, 1998)
• Can recognize Mozart sonata they hear daily over the new
one ( Saffran, Loman, & Roberson, 2000)
• American infants prefer a simple and regular beat (Soley &
Hannon, 2010).
• Young infants display preferences for structural patterns
common to their native culture.
What arguments exist for or against the
view that infants possess an innate
capacity to detect phonemes?
• Yes, before six months of age, babies distinguish all the important
sounds in any of the hundreds of language spoken around the
world (Werker & Desjardins, 1995)
• Babies are born with a “ speech module” (Fodor, 1983)
• But The complexity of language acquisition, according to this view,
requires a specialized ability because the cognitive skills of infants
and young children are so limited.
• An alternative view is that phoneme discrimination hinges on
broader more general auditory capacities, capacities not
limited to processing speech sounds or even necessarily
unique to humans but that infants are able to exploit quite
early in development.
What is categorical perception?
• Inability distinguish among sounds that vary on some basic
physical dimension except when those sounds lie at opposite
sides of a critical juncture point on that dimension
What is perceptual narrowing?
• One’s auditory and visual perceptual ability narrows down
into something they hear or see more frequently.
When does it begin to play a role in
auditory and visual perception?
• In auditory perceptual narrowing shows from by 6 to 12 months
age to distinguish basic sounds that are not hear within their
native language (Saffran et al., 2006)
• By 6 to 8 months olds reared in an English-speaking environment
could readily discriminate among phonemes used only in Hindi,
whereas 11 to 13 months olds had more difficulty with this task
(Werker & Lalonde, 1988)
• Adults can regain such lost discriminations only with considerable
practice or under highly restricted listening conditions (Werker,
1989).
• But this capacity doesn’t disappear.
When does it begin to play a role in
auditory and visual perception?
• It is found in visual processing.
• E.g. after seeing a single monkey face over a number of trials,
infants at six months of age exhibit a preference for a novel
monkey face when paired with the familiarized monkey face.
• By nine months of age, they no longer discriminate the familiar
from the unfamiliar monkey faces.
• In contrast, after being familiarized to a human face, both six and
nine month olds discriminate the novel and familiar faces.
• The visual perceptual processing of nine month olds has become
more finely tuned to relevant (human) compared with irrelevant
(Monkey) stimuli.
What are some of the sociocultural
implications of perceptual narrowing?
• This discrimination become even stronger in their native language.
(American kids vs Japanese in discriminating ra/la phonemes, Kuhl
et al., 2006)
• Similar perceptual narrowing has been reported for distinguishing
variations in meter in musical patterns, which differ across cultures..
• At three months of age, infants readily distinguish the faces of
previously seen individuals from new faces, regardless of their
racial or ethnic background.
• Around six to nine months age, they begin to exhibit perceptual
narrowing showing novelty preferences for faces of individuals
from only the ethnic group with which they are familiar.
• Their auditory and visual systems to relevant information that
most frequently occurs within their day-to-day experiences.
Smell, Taste, Touch, and Sensitivity to
Pain
• Smell: newborns detect odors.
• At three to four days of age, infants show a preference for
the smell of human breast mild as opposed to formula milk,
even when they have been bottle-fed from birth.
How does intermodal perception
develop?
• Coordination of sensory information to perceive or make inferences
about the characteristics of an object.
• Changing lips for cup drinking
• Hearing mother’s voice from another room stimulate child to expect to
see her in that room.
• When objects are shaken, some rattle and make a noise, but others do
not; that material that feels soft can also look soft; a square-looking
peg will not fit into a round-looking hole.
• Intermodal perception stems from integration or enrichment through
the repeated association of sensations from two or more modalities.
• It is the outcome of constructing multisensory schemes from correlated
sensory experiences.
• It is already possible from the birth. (Gibson, 1982)
How does intermodal perception
develop?
• It is already possible from the birth. (Gibson, 1982) amodal,
not tied to a particular sensory modality but shared across
two or more of them.
• Temporal synchrony, correlated onset and offset of
stimulation that can occur between two or more sensory
modalities (e.g. hearing someone begin and stop speaking
while simultaneously seeing their lips start and stop)
What evidence exists to show that infants
recognize the correlation between visual
and auditory information as well as visual
and tactile cues?
• Two screen. Sounds coming from the middle. With one screen matches
with the sound and the other doesn’t.
• Toy and sounds
• Matches the sound of train goes away and come along
• Babies recognize voice with the face, different gender (male voice vs
male face), spatial position.
• By two months of age, babies also recognize these kinds of auditoryvisual correspondence, attending more to facial expressions articulating
sounds that match than facial expressions that do not match what they
hear (Patterson & Werker, 2003).
What evidence exists to show that infants
recognize the correlation between visual
and auditory information as well as visual
and tactile cues?
• Even as newborns, babies who have just previously held an
object by grasping it in their hand can recognize its shape by
sight alone;
• They do not recognize that an object to which they have
been habituated visually is the same as or different from the
one they now are given the opportunity to hold.
What are examples of how perceptual
development interacts with other domains
of development?
• Amodal properties is especially important for early perceptual,
cognitive, and social development.
• Bark vs dogs, mom’s voices, crocodile sound, names of
colours and colour.
Consider infants who might have been
reared in an institutional setting. Given your
knowledge of what infants can sense and
perceive, why might such infants be at a
serious disadvantage compared with those
reared in a traditional family setting?
• Amodal development is quite essential in child’s cognitive
and perceptual development but this can be developed
through repeated corresponding association of multi-modality.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VvdOe10vrs4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bF3j5UVCSCA
Homework
• Please watch the video and try to answer to the last question using the
relevant theory that is in the chapter 6.
• Watch the lesson in the videos. What kinds of perceptual modality has
been reflected in these lessons? Please add more activities that reflects
young learners’ perceptual development if it is necessary with an
explanation.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=efCq_vHUMqs (a child without
parental care)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwCwj21MdlY
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DtyAdeVlNg
• (preschool learners in ELT)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gwI-mNRW9Mc key principles
teaching very young learners.
Homework
• Read the chapter 7 and answer to the 3 questions from p.
250, 2 Qs from p. 263 , and 3 questions from p. 275.