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Last Lecture….. Proteins Carbohydrates Enzymes Study Guide Use study guide to determine what you need to know. 95% of test will be from study guide. Do I need to know that glucose + glucose =maltose? Study guide says recognize structures list functions of carbohydrates give characteristics and where found in cell Do selected study questions only. If it was mentioned in lab/lecture and is in the study questions then it has a higher probability of being on a test. Carbohydrate - Monosaccharide 3. Is this a protein? lipid? nucleic acid? carbohydrate? CH2OH O OH OH OH OH 13. Understand protein structure and how it relates to function. Explain how amylase structure relates to its function. Amylase is an enzyme that digests starch but not cellulose. Primary structure (amino acid sequence) determines the secondary and tertiary structure. Secondary structure - sections of peptide chain coil or fold into either alpha helices or beta sheets. Tertiary structure is extremely important to the functioning of amylase. The tertiary structure is formed by the whole peptide chain (protein) folding and coiling around itself. This forms the active site (binding site) of the enzyme. The enzyme is held in a specific configuration (tertiary structure) by H-bonding, sulfide bridges, and non-polar/non-polar interactions. In order for amylase to break down starch it must bind the starch. It can only bind starch because its tertiary structure results in the formation of a binding site. Quaternary structure would be more than one peptide chain associated with each other to form a functioning protein, but amylase is just one peptide chain. 14. Characteristics of Enzymes Biological catalysts Proteins (usually) Names end in –ase Can be classified according to job they do Interactions with substrates can be described using four terms Specificity – binding site designed for one type of ligand When two or more ligands compete for the same site one may have a higher affinity than the other. The ligand with the highest affinity will bind to the protein stronger. If the protein is 50% saturated then half of the binding sites are filled. When an enzyme is 100% saturated the rate of reaction is at maximum. Saturation (FOX fig 4.6) This is at a fixed amount of enzyme Functions of Carbohydrates Fuel Signaling Molecule Ribose is component of: DNA RNA ATP NAD/FADH Digestive Regulation Fibers normalize transit time Fibers decreases cholesterol, TAG and LDL Chapters 4 and 5 Metabolism Metabolism • All the chemical reactions in the body • Specifically those that involve energy transformations • First Law of Thermodynamics • energy can not be created or destroyed • Second Law of Thermodynamics • without the input of energy, disorder increases Metabolism • catabolism • reactions that break things down • exergonic • releases energy • anabolism • reactions build things up • endergonic • takes energy Proteins Nucleic Acids Polysaccharides Amino Acids Nucleotides Monosaccharides Lipids Glycerol Glycolysis Glucose Glyceraldehyde3-phosphate Pyruvate Acetyl-CoA Krebs Cycle e- CO2 eReduced Electron Carriers NADH, FADH2 NH3 ADP ATP O2 Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation Oxidized electron Carriers (NAD+, FAD) H 2O Fatty Acids Energy Transformations ATP (FOX 4.13) ATP = adenosine triphosphate • spending money (paper money) • universal energy carrier Base Pi Pi Base Pi Pi Ribose + Pi Pi Ribose Energy adenosine triphosphate (ATP) inorganic phosphate This is a reversible reaction. ADP ATP Cell respiration • • • • glycolysis krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) electron transport chain (ETC) oxidative phosphorylation Glycolysis • Substrates: glucose (C6H12O6) + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2 NAD • Products: 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + 2 NADH • Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm • First step of glycolysis: • takes energy • traps glucose in the cell • example of substrate level phosphorylation First steps take energy (FOX fig 5.1) Substrate level phosphorylation • Phosphate group transferred from ATP to another molecule. • Catalyzed by kinase • Kinases add phosphate group to a molecule. • Reverse reaction catalyzed by phosphatase Pi Other Molecule Other Molecule Base Pi Pi Base Pi Pi Pi Ribose ATP Substrate Level Phosphorylation ADP Ribose Glycolysis FOX fig 5.6 Krebs Cycle (FOX fig 5.8) Krebs Cycle Krebs Cycle • Substrates: acetyl CoA (two carbon molecule attached to coenzyme) • Products: CO2 + NADH + FADH2 + ATP • Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix FADH made from riboflavin (FOX fig 4.17) NAD made from Niacin (FOX fig 4.17) Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation ETC and Oxidative Phosphorylation • Located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. • Energy stored in NADH and FADH2 used to create a concentration gradient. • Proton concentration higher in intermembrane space. • Protons flow through ATP synthase and ATP is made. • ATP made this way is called oxidative phosporylation (vs substrate level phosphorylation) • What if protein pores let H+ through? What if no oxygen? • • • • Oxygen not available to accept electrons. Electron carriers all fill up (saturated). ETC stops. So no way to oxidize (regenerate) FADH and NAD so Krebs stops. • There is a reaction that will regenerate NAD (next slide) • This is called anaerobic respiration Credit card use. (FOX fig 5.3) Anaerobic Respiration • Good news • glycolysis continues • Bad news • two ATP per glucose • lactic acid build up (pain, fatigue – chpt 12) • oxygen debt must be repaid – cori cycle Cori Cycle (FOX fig 5.5) Burning other fuel sources • Carbohydrates • Proteins • Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Polysaccharides Amino Acids Nucleotides Monosaccharides Lipids Glycerol Glycolysis Glucose Glyceraldehyde3-phosphate Pyruvate Acetyl-CoA Krebs Cycle e- CO2 eReduced Electron Carriers NADH, FADH2 NH3 ADP ATP O2 Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation Oxidized electron Carriers (NAD+, FAD) H 2O Fatty Acids Burning other fuel sources • Carbohydrates • glucose C6 • glycolysis – 2 pyruvates and 2 ATP and 2 NADH • complete cell respiration – 30 ATP • 5 ATP per carbon • Lipids • fatty acids – C16 • beta oxidation – NADH and 8 Acetyl CoA • complete cell respiration – 108 ATP • 6.75 ATP per carbon Fuels sources of select Organs • Fox Table 5.3