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PowerPoint® Lecture Slide Presentation by Patty Bostwick-Taylor, Florence-Darlington Technical College The Nervous System 7 PART A Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functions of the Nervous System Sensory input—gathering information To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body Changes = stimuli Integration To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functions of the Nervous System Motor output A response to integrated stimuli The response activates muscles or glands Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functions of the Nervous System Figure 7.1 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Classification of the Nervous System Central nervous system (CNS) Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord Spinal nerves Cranial nerves Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Sensory (afferent) division Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system Motor (efferent) division Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Organization of the Nervous System Figure 7.2 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System Motor (efferent) division (continued) Two subdivisions Somatic nervous system = voluntary Autonomic nervous system = involuntary Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as “neuroglia” Function: to support, insulate, and protect neurons 9 glial cells : 1 neuron Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Astrocytes Abundant, star-shaped cells Brace neurons Form barrier between capillaries and neurons Control the chemical environment of the brain Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Microglia Spiderlike phagocytes Dispose of debris Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Ependymal cells Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord Circulate cerebrospinal fluid Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3c Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Oligodendrocytes Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous system Produce myelin sheaths Found in the CNS Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3d Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Satellite cells Protect neuron cell bodies Schwann cells Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Figure 7.3e Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Neurons Neurons = nerve cells Cells specialized to transmit messages Major regions of neurons Cell body—nucleus and metabolic center of the cell Processes—fibers that extend from the cell body Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Neurons Cell body Nissl substance Specialized rough endoplasmic reticulum Neurofibrils Intermediate cytoskeleton Maintains cell shape Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Neurons Figure 7.4 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Neurons Cell body Nucleus Large nucleolus Processes outside the cell body Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the cell body Axons—conduct impulses away from the cell body Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Neurons Figure 7.4 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Neurons Axons end in axonal terminals Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap Synaptic cleft—gap between adjacent neurons Synapse—junction between nerves Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Neurons Myelin sheath—whitish, fatty material covering axons Schwann cells—produce myelin sheaths in jelly roll–like fashion Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin sheath along the axon Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nervous Tissue: Neurons Figure 7.5 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Neuron Cell Body Location Most neuron cell bodies are found in the central nervous system Gray matter—cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the central nervous system Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functional Classification of Neurons Sensory (afferent) neurons Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS Cutaneous sense organs Proprioceptors—detect stretch or tension Motor (efferent) neurons Carry impulses from the central nervous system to viscera, muscles, or glands Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functional Classification of Neurons Figure 7.7 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functional Classification of Neurons Interneurons (association neurons) Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system Connect sensory and motor neurons Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Neuron Classification Figure 7.6 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Classification of Neurons Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell body Figure 7.8a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Classification of Neurons Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite Figure 7.8b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Classification of Neurons Unipolar neurons—have a short single process leaving the cell body Figure 7.8c Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functional Properties of Neurons Irritability Ability to respond to stimuli Conductivity Ability to transmit an impulse Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nerve Impulses Resting neuron The plasma membrane at rest is polarized Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell Depolarization A stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane A depolarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow inside the membrane The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nerve Impulses Figure 7.9a–b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nerve Impulses Action potential If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nerve Impulses Figure 7.9c–d Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nerve Impulses Repolarization Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane The sodium-potassium pump, using ATP, restores the original configuration Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Nerve Impulses Figure 7.9e–f Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Na+ Na+ K+ K+ 3 Additional Na channels open, K channels are closed; interior of cell becomes more positive. 4 Na channels close and 50 Membrane potential (mV) Na+ K+ 2 A stimulus opens some Na channels; if threshold is reached, action potential is triggered. Sodium channel Na+ Action potential 3 0 4 2 5 The K channels –50 Threshold 1 –100 Potassium channel inactivate. K channels open, and K rushes out; interior of cell more negative than outside. Resting potential 5 close relatively slowly, causing a brief undershoot. 1 Time (msec) Na+ Neuron interior K+ Neuron interior Plasma membrane 1 Resting state: voltage-gated Na K+ and K channels closed; resting potential is maintained. 1 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 43 Return to resting state. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon terminal The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter An action potential is started in the dendrite Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Axon of transmitting neuron Axon terminal Action potential arrives Vesicles Synaptic cleft Receiving neuron Synapse Transmitting neuron Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter molecules Synaptic cleft Ion channels Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Receiving neuron Neurotransmitter Receptor Neurotransmitter broken down and released Na+ Na+ Ion channel opens Ion channel closes Figure 7.10 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Axon of transmitting neuron Axon terminal Action potential arrives Vesicles Synaptic cleft Receiving neuron Synapse Figure 7.10, step 1 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Axon of transmitting neuron Axon terminal Action potential arrives Vesicles Synaptic cleft Receiving neuron Synapse Transmitting neuron Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Ion channels Receiving neuron Figure 7.10, step 2 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Axon of transmitting neuron Axon terminal Action potential arrives Vesicles Synaptic cleft Receiving neuron Synapse Transmitting neuron Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Ion channels Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter molecules Receiving neuron Figure 7.10, step 3 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Axon of transmitting neuron Axon terminal Action potential arrives Vesicles Synaptic cleft Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Synaptic cleft Ion channels Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft Synapse Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Neurotransmitter molecules Receiving neuron Figure 7.10, step 4 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Axon of transmitting neuron Axon terminal Action potential arrives Vesicles Synaptic cleft Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Neurotransmitter molecules Synaptic cleft Ion channels Synapse Receiving neuron Neurotransmitter Receptor Na+ Ion channel opens Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.10, step 5 Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Axon Axon of terminal transmitting neuron Vesicles Action potential arrives Synaptic cleft Receiving neuron Transmitting neuron Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Neurotransmitter molecules Synaptic cleft Ion channels Synapse Receiving neuron Neurotransmitter Receptor Na+ Ion channel opens Neurotransmitter broken down and released Na+ Ion channel closes Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.10, step 6 Transmission of a Signal at Synapses Axon terminal Axon of transmitting neuron Action potential arrives Vesicles Synaptic cleft Receiving neuron Synapse Transmitting neuron Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter molecules Synaptic cleft Ion channels Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane Receiving neuron Neurotransmitter Receptor Na+ Ion channel opens Neurotransmitter broken down and released Na+ Ion channel closes Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.10, step 7 The Reflex Arc Reflex—rapid, predictable, and involuntary response to a stimulus Occurs over pathways called reflex arcs Reflex arc—direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Reflex Arc Skin Spinal cord (in cross section) Stimulus at distal end of neuron Sensory neuron Receptor Motor neuron (a) Effector Integration center Interneuron Figure 7.11a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Reflex Arc Skin Stimulus at distal end of neuron Receptor (a) Figure 7.11a, step 1 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Reflex Arc Skin Stimulus at distal end of neuron Sensory neuron Receptor (a) Figure 7.11a, step 2 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Reflex Arc Skin Stimulus at distal end of neuron Spinal cord (in cross section) Sensory neuron Receptor Integration center Interneuron (a) Figure 7.11a, step 3 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Reflex Arc Skin Stimulus at distal end of neuron Spinal cord (in cross section) Sensory neuron Receptor Motor neuron Integration center Interneuron (a) Figure 7.11a, step 4 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Reflex Arc Skin Spinal cord (in cross section) Stimulus at distal end of neuron Sensory neuron Receptor Motor neuron (a) Effector Integration center Interneuron Figure 7.11a, step 5 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Sensory (afferent) neuron Spinal cord Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Sensory (afferent) neuron Synapse in ventral horn gray matter Interneuron Motor (efferent) neuron Motor (efferent) neuron (b) Effector (quadriceps muscle of thigh) Effector (biceps brachii muscle) (c) Figure 7.11b–c Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Spinal cord (b) Figure 7.11b, step 1 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Sensory (afferent) neuron Spinal cord (b) Figure 7.11b, step 2 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Sensory (afferent) neuron Spinal cord Synapse in ventral horn gray matter (b) Figure 7.11b, step 3 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Sensory (afferent) neuron Spinal cord Synapse in ventral horn gray matter Motor (efferent) neuron (b) Figure 7.11b, step 4 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Sensory (afferent) neuron Spinal cord Synapse in ventral horn gray matter (b) Motor (efferent) neuron Effector (quadriceps muscle of thigh) Figure 7.11b, step 5 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Spinal cord (c) Figure 7.11c, step 1 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron (c) Figure 7.11c, step 2 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Interneuron (c) Figure 7.11c, step 3 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Interneuron Motor (efferent) neuron (c) Figure 7.11c, step 4a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Spinal cord Sensory (afferent) neuron Interneuron Motor (efferent) neuron Effector (biceps brachii muscle) (c) Figure 7.11c, step 4b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Simple Reflex Arc Sensory receptors (stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle) Sensory (afferent) neuron Spinal cord Sensory receptors (pain receptors in the skin) Sensory (afferent) neuron Synapse in ventral horn gray matter Interneuron Motor (efferent) neuron Motor (efferent) neuron (b) Effector (quadriceps muscle of thigh) Effector (biceps brachii muscle) (c) Figure 7.11b–c Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of Reflexes and Regulation Somatic reflexes Activation of skeletal muscles Example: When you move your hand away from a hot stove Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of Reflexes and Regulation Autonomic reflexes Smooth muscle regulation Heart and blood pressure regulation Regulation of glands Digestive system regulation Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of Reflexes and Regulation Patellar, or knee-jerk, reflex is an example of a two-neuron reflex arc Figure 7.11d Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Central Nervous System (CNS) CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles Four chambers within the brain Filled with cerebrospinal fluid Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Central Nervous System (CNS) Figure 7.12a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum) Diencephalon Brain stem Cerebellum Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.12b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain Includes more than half of the brain mass The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Lobes of the cerebrum Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes Surface lobes of the cerebrum Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Specialized areas of the cerebrum Primary somatic sensory area Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors Located in parietal lobe Primary motor area Sends impulses to skeletal muscles Located in frontal lobe Broca’s area Involved in our ability to speak Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13c Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.14 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Cerebral areas involved in special senses Gustatory area (taste) Visual area Auditory area Olfactory area Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Interpretation areas of the cerebrum Speech/language region Language comprehension region General interpretation area Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13c Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Layers of the cerebrum Gray matter—outer layer in the cerebral cortex composed mostly of neuron cell bodies White matter—fiber tracts deep to the gray matter Corpus callosum connects hemispheres Basal nuclei—islands of gray matter buried within the white matter Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.15 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Figure 7.16 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Sits on top of the brain stem Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres Made of three parts Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Figure 7.12b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Figure 7.16a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Figure 7.16b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Thalamus Surrounds the third ventricle The relay station for sensory impulses Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretation Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Hypothalamus Under the thalamus Important autonomic nervous system center Helps regulate body temperature Controls water balance Regulates metabolism Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Hypothalamus (continued) An important part of the limbic system (emotions) The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Epithalamus Forms the roof of the third ventricle Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland) Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Attaches to the spinal cord Parts of the brain stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Figure 7.16a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Midbrain Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers Has two bulging fiber tracts— cerebral peduncles Has four rounded protrusions— corpora quadrigemina Reflex centers for vision and hearing Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Pons The bulging center part of the brain stem Mostly composed of fiber tracts Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Medulla Oblongata The lowest part of the brain stem Merges into the spinal cord Includes important fiber tracts Contains important control centers Heart rate control Blood pressure regulation Breathing Swallowing Vomiting Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem Reticular Formation Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem Involved in motor control of visceral organs Reticular activating system (RAS) plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Reticular Formation of the Brain Stem Figure 7.16b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces Provides involuntary coordination of body movements Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum Figure 7.16a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protection of the Central Nervous System Scalp and skin Skull and vertebral column Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Blood-brain barrier Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protection of the Central Nervous System Figure 7.17a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Meninges Dura mater Double-layered external covering Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the skull Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain Folds inward in several areas Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Meninges Arachnoid layer Middle layer Web-like Pia mater Internal layer Clings to the surface of the brain Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Meninges Figure 7.17b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Similar to blood plasma composition Formed by the choroid plexus Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Figure 7.18a–b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Figure 7.18c Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hydrocephalus in a Newborn Hydrocephalus CSF accumulates and exerts pressure on the brain if not allowed to drain Figure 7.19 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Blood-Brain Barrier Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body Excludes many potentially harmful substances Useless as a barrier against some substances Fats and fat soluble molecules Respiratory gases Alcohol Nicotine Anesthesia Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Traumatic Brain Injuries Concussion Slight brain injury No permanent brain damage Contusion Nervous tissue destruction occurs Nervous tissue does not regenerate Cerebral edema Swelling from the inflammatory response May compress and kill brain tissue Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) Commonly called a stroke The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies Loss of some functions or death may result Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Alzheimer’s Disease Progressive degenerative brain disease Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion, and ultimately, hallucinations and death Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Spinal Cord Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end L1 – L2 Lumbar punctures and epidurals L3 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Spinal Cord Anatomy Figure 7.20 (1 of 2) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Spinal Cord Anatomy Figure 7.20 (2 of 2) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Spinal Cord Anatomy Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies Dorsal (posterior) horns Anterior (ventral) horns Gray matter surrounds the central canal Central canal is filled with cerebrospinal fluid Exterior white mater—conduction tracts Dorsal, lateral, ventral columns Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Spinal Cord Anatomy Figure 7.21 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Spinal Cord Anatomy Meninges cover the spinal cord Spinal nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae Dorsal root Associated with the dorsal root ganglia— collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system Ventral root Contains axons Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Pathways Between Brain and Spinal Cord Figure 7.22 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Structure of a Nerve Endoneurium surrounds each fiber Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium Fascicles are bound together by epineurium Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Structure of a Nerve Figure 7.23 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Classification of Nerves Mixed nerves Both sensory and motor fibers Sensory (afferent) nerves Carry impulses toward the CNS Motor (efferent) nerves Carry impulses away from the CNS Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Cranial Nerves 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck Only the pair of vagus nerves extend to thoracic and abdominal cavities Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Cranial Nerves I Olfactory nerve—sensory for smell II Optic nerve—sensory for vision III Oculomotor nerve—motor fibers to eye muscles IV Trochlear—motor fiber to eye muscles Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Cranial Nerves V Trigeminal nerve—sensory for the face; motor fibers to chewing muscles VI Abducens nerve—motor fibers to eye muscles VII Facial nerve—sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve—sensory for balance and hearing Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Cranial Nerves IX Glossopharyngeal nerve—sensory for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx X Vagus nerves—sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera XI Accessory nerve—motor fibers to neck and upper back XII Hypoglossal nerve—motor fibers to tongue Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: The Cranial Nerves Table 7.1 (1 of 4) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: The Cranial Nerves Table 7.1 (2 of 4) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: The Cranial Nerves Table 7.1 (3 of 4) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: The Cranial Nerves Table 7.1 (4 of 4) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Distribution of Cranial Nerves Figure 7.24 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Spinal Nerves There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord Named for the region from which they arise Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Spinal Nerves Figure 7.25a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Anatomy of Spinal Nerves Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk Ventral rami—form a complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: The Spinal Nerves Figure 7.25b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Spinal Nerve Plexuses Table 7.2 (1 of 2) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Spinal Nerve Plexuses Table 7.2 (2 of 2) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Distribution of Major Peripheral Nerves of the Upper and Lower Limbs Figure 7.26a Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Distribution of Major Peripheral Nerves of the Upper and Lower Limbs Figure 7.26b Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Distribution of Major Peripheral Nerves of the Upper and Lower Limbs Figure 7.26c Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Autonomic Nervous System Motor subdivision of the PNS Consists only of motor nerves Also known as the involuntary nervous system Regulates activities of cardiac and smooth muscles and glands Two subdivisions Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Nerves Somatic: one motor neuron Autonomic: preganglionic and postganglionic nerves Effector organs Somatic: skeletal muscle Autonomic: smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Neurotransmitters Somatic: always use acetylcholine Autonomic: use acetylcholine, epinephrine, or norepinephrine Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Figure 7.27 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division Originates from T1 through L2 Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the spinal cord) Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long postganglionic neuron transmit impulse from CNS to the effector Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters to the effector organs Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System Figure 7.28 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Sympathetic Pathways Figure 7.29 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division Originates from the brain stem and S1 through S4 Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs Always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Autonomic Functioning Sympathetic—“fight or flight” Response to unusual stimulus Takes over to increase activities Remember as the “E” division Exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PNS: Autonomic Functioning Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites Conserves energy Maintains daily necessary body functions Remember as the “D” division digestion, defecation, and diuresis Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the ANS Table 7.3 (1 of 2) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the ANS Table 7.3 (2 of 2) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Development Aspects of the Nervous System The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Development Aspects of the Nervous System No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues for several years (mostly) The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings