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CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AS PERCIEVED BY RURAL COMMUNITIES IN SWAZILAND Absalom M. Manyatsi* Department of Land Use and Mechanisation, University of Swaziland, P.O. Luyengo, Swaziland The objective of the research was to find out what rural communities know about climate change and climate change adaptation, and their perception of climate change. Interviews were conducted to a total of 60 members of the rural communities (20 from each community) selected from Middleveld ecological zone, Lowveld ecological zone and the Lubombo ecological zone. The reported signs of climate changes included late rains, low rains, drought and famine. The effect of climate change felt by community members included failure of crops, death of livestock and low crop yields. The majority of the community members did not provide any scientifically proven cause of climate change. The causes cited included that of community not keeping Swazi customs, supernatural powers and that of being an act of God. The farming methods adopted to mitigate climate change included mixed cropping and growing of vegetables under irrigation. The other climate change adaptation strategies observed by community members included pooling of resources through societies, provision of food rations to community members by NGOs and private companies, as well as feeding schemes to school children. The strategies suggested by community members to mitigate and reduce effects of climate change included provision of water for irrigation, praying for God’s intervention, reducing production of greenhouse gases and provision of farming inputs to communities. Community members did not have adequate information on climate change and climate change adaptation. The limited information accessible to many communities was through the local radio in the form of daily weather forecast. The information was found to be lacking details and of a very short term. The feeling of the community members was that weather forecast should provide medium to long-term information. The weather prediction focused on major towns, and was of less relevance to many communities. Communities suggested an effective early warning system to operate at constituency level. They specified need for weather stations at community levels in order for them to monitor and record weather data. Keywords: Adaptation, Coping strategies, National response 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background information for country The Kingdom of Swaziland covers an area of 17,364 km2 and lies between latitudes 26 oS and 27 oS and longitudes 31oE and 33 oE. It is surrounded on the north, west, and southern sides by the Republic of South Africa and on the east by Mozambique (Fig. 1). The two major towns/cities in the country are Mbabane and Manzini, with Mbabane being the capital city. The total population according to the 1997 census was 929,718 of which 489,564 (52%) were females, while 440,154 (47.3%) were males. In 2004 the * Phone: +268 527 4021 Fax: +268 527 4441 E-mail: [email protected] 1 population was estimated at 1,169,240, with population growth rate estimated at 0.55% (CIA, 2005). The population estimates took into account the effects of high mortality due to AIDS related ailments. The HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate was estimated at 39%. GDP real growth rate was estimated at 2.2% in 2004, with GDP per capita (purchasing power parity) estimated at $4,900. Agriculture contributed 16.2% of GDP, with industry and services contributing 43.2% and 40.5% respectively (CIA, 2005). About 77% of the population lived in the rural areas, with 23% in urban areas (Government of Swaziland, 1997). About 30% of the population faced food shortages in 2005/2006, and relied on donated food. It is estimated that about 40% of the population are facing acute food and water shortage in 2007 after the worst harvest in the country’s recorded history (IRIN, 2007) 1.2 Climate change and its effects Climate change has emerged as one of the main challenges humankind will have to face for many years to come. It could become a major threat to world food security, as it has a strong impact on food production, access and distribution. Abnormal changes in temperature and rainfall, and the increasing frequency and intensity of droughts and floods have long-term implications for the viability and productivity of world agroecosystems. Agriculture is the sector most affected by changes in climate patterns and will be increasingly vulnerable in the future. Especially at risk are developing counties, which are highly dependent on agriculture and have fewer resources and options to combat damage from climate change. Agriculture is both a culprit and a victim when it comes to climate change. It is estimated that the livestock sector alone accounts for 18 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, while deforestation is responsible for 18 percent of carbon dioxide emissions (FAO, 2007). According to FAO, introducing improved livestock management and crop practices, couple with adaptive management of forests could have significant impact on climate change. Adopting land use practices in agriculture such as conservation agriculture would also help to maintain significant amounts of carbon in the soil (FAO, 2007). Africa's contribution to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases has been minimal, yet according to the IPCC, Africa is the most vulnerable continent to climate change as widespread poverty severely limits its capabilities to adapt (IPCC, 2007). For Africa, the total contribution of emissions of greenhouse gases is less than 7% of the world’s greenhouse emissions (Olsen, 2006). Developing countries will be the hardest hot by the effects of climate change. The effects of climate change will be felt sooner than scientists realised (IPCC, 2007) Hundreds of millions of people in developing nations will face natural disasters, water shortage and hunger due to the effects of climate change. Extreme weather events are likely to become more intense and more frequent, while higher global temperatures could affect crops and water supplies and spread disease. Matondo et al. (2005) reported that there will be reduction in runoff under changed climatic conditions in Swaziland, and the available water resources will be less in the future. The effect on ecosystems could be equally severe, with up to 30% of plant and animal species at risk of extinction if the average rise in global temperatures exceeds 1.5 to 2.5 oC (IPCC, 2007). Consequences of rising temperatures are already being felt on every continent, and sooner than expected. Parts of the Arctic experienced an unprecedented heat wave in the summer of 2007, with one research station in the Canadian High Arctic recording temperatures above 20 oC, about 2 15 oC higher than the long-term average. The high temperatures were accompanied by a dramatic melting of Arctic sea ice in September 2007 to the lowest levels ever recorded (Connor, 2007). 1.3 Institutions responsible for climatic change issues The Swaziland Meteorological Services is mandated to monitor the weather and climate in order to provide the necessary information and give advice to the different sectors of the economy. It carries out continuous observations of the weather, issue warnings and information to the farming community and the public, and update the national climate database (Swaziland Meteorological Services, 2007). In its capacity as host for the National Focal Point in international climate change convention, the Swaziland Meteorological Services represents the Government of Swaziland in international climate negotiations. The other government institutions that are relevant to climate change and climate change adaptation are the Swaziland Environment Authority, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy and the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communication (Government of Swaziland, 2007). The Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC), is a parastatal organization that is responsible for conserving nature and cultural heritage in Swaziland (SNTC, 2007). The Coordinating Assemble of Non Governmental Organisations (CANGO) provides services that improve the capacity of local non-governmental organizations, some of which are involved in climate change issues (CANGO, 2007). 1.4 Policy and legislative for climate change Research has shown that climate change vulnerability can be reduced through human adaptation. Some of these adaptations would be motivated by self interest (such as adjustment on farming practices, while others would need an active role by government in implementing them (Butt et al. 2006). Some adaptation might require stimulating policy actions focusing on climate change impacts (Boere and Taylor, 2004; Butt et al., 2006). Climate specific policy may directly address climate change adaptations by altering research and extension funding regarding the development of high-temperatureresistant varieties and facilitating shifts in cropping patterns to better suit the altered climate (Butt et al., 2006). Swaziland signed and ratified both the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol. Following the signing of Convention and protocol the country produced its first national communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2000. The report provided an overview of national inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases. On aggregate, taking into account the amounts of emissions and sinks in all sectors, Swaziland’s final greenhouse gases budget was found to be of a net carbon dioxide sink. The predominant carbon uptake was by trees from commercial plantations including non-forest trees in towns (Government of Swaziland, 2000). The country has several environmental policies and legislations as shown in Table 1. They include the Forest Preservation Act of 1907, the National Trust Commission Act of 1972, the Water Act of 2003 and the Disaster Management Act of 2006. However there is no policy that is directed to climate change and climate change adaptation. In a 3 National Agriculture Summit held from the 18th to the 20th of July 2007 it was noted that the existing policies and action plans did not address the failure of the agriculture industry brought about by climate change. In summing up the effect of global warming and climatic change in the agricultural sector in Swaziland, during the agriculture summit, Noah Nkambule the retired Principal Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives stated that climatic change was a major challenge facing the agriculture industry. He said in the past, ploughing season was predictable to farmers who started cultivating their fields as summer season approached. He further stated that it has become very difficult for farmers to produce as the effects of global warming hit the country (verbal communication with Noah Nkambule). The country is faced with drought across all regions and there is need to establish secure water supply for all. The summit proposed a review of policies and action plans. 1.5 Adaptation and coping with climate change Adaptation and coping with climate change is complex and it involves a range of social and economic factors including education and literacy as well as creative financial and technological solutions, including a better understanding and application of indigenous knowledge and traditional coping strategies (Science News, 2007). In semi-arid areas rainwater harvesting can play a role as an irrigation and drinking water source. In agriculture other factors could be investigated to enhance resilience to shocks such as drought which include national grain reserves, grain futures markets, weather insurance and school feeding schemes (Science News, 2007). The success of climate change adaptation strategies will depend on a number of factors including informed society on climate change and its impact, institutional set-up for implementation of climate change adaptation strategies, policies to support strategies, involvement of broad spectrum of stakeholder, incentives to implement climate change adaptation strategies and availability of funds to implement strategies (TEARFUND, 2006). TEARFUND (2006) suggested that climate change information should be made relevant to a particular sector, and it should raise awareness of the likely impacts of climate change. 4 Table 1. Policy and legislation relevant to the environment POLICY/LEGISLATION The Forests Preservation Act of 1907 (Government of Swaziland, 1907) RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE The Act makes provision for the preservation of trees and forests growing on government land, and on Swazi Nation Land. It prohibits the cutting down, damage, removal, sell or purchase of indigenous or government timber without the permission of the Minister of Agriculture. The Private Forests Act of The Act provides for the better regulation and protection of private 1951 (Government of forests in the country. Swaziland, 1951) The Grass Fire Act of 1955 The Act consolidates laws relating to grass burning and grass fire. (Government of Swaziland, It has an implication in climate change, as grass burning and grass 1955) fires contribute to accumulation of greenhouse gases. It regulates the interval and period at which fire can be set on grass. The National Trust The Act provides for the operation of cultural institutions and the Commission Act of 1972 proclamation of national parks and monuments. The national parks (Government of Swaziland, are protected from anthropogenic activities, and the trees and other 1972) vegetation act as sink for greenhouse gases produced elsewhere. The Waste Regulations of The regulations regulate the management of solid waste and liquid 2000 (Government of waste disposal on land. It prohibits persons from disposing of Swaziland, 2000b) commercial or industrial, waste, or household waste produced in urban areas, except at an approved waste disposal facility. It also prohibits the import of hazardous waste into the country. The Environmental Audit, It requires any operator who undertakes developments to submit an Assessment and Review Environmental Assessment report and a Comprehensive Mitigation Regulations of 2000 Plan to the Swaziland Environmental Authority before permission (Government of Swaziland, can be given to undertake the developments. The impact of the 2000c) development to climate change is taken into consideration when considering the Environmental Assessment. The Environmental The Act provides and promotes the enhancement, protection and Management Act of 2002 conservation of the environment and sustainable management of (Government of Swaziland, natural resources. It advocates for minimizing of generation of 2002b) waste. The Water Act of 2003 The Water Act established a National Water Authority that is (Government of Swaziland, responsible for advising the Minister responsible on matters related 2003) to water use and distribution. It also establishes other institutions including the River Basin Authorities, the Water Apportionment Board, the Irrigation Districts and the Water Users Associations. The Disaster Management The Act sets up a national disaster management policy and plans in Act of 2006 (Government order to avoid or minimize potential losses from hazards, to of Swaziland, 2006) provide timely and appropriate assistance to victims and their dependents in the event of a disaster. Swaziland is prone to disasters associated with climate change. These disasters include drought, famine, occasional floods and storms. 5 2. METHODOLOGY Interview guides were prepared and reviewed by a panel of experts in climate change and climate change adaptation for content and validity. Seven research assistants with undergraduate (Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Arts) qualifications were trained to conduct interviews. Interviews were conducted to a total of 60 members of the rural community (20 from each community) selected from Mbekelweni (Middleveld zone), Somntogo (Lowveld zone) and Shewula (Lubombo zone) as shown in Fig. 1. The interviews provided exploratory information as the sample size fell short of a real representation of the population Figure 1. Map of Swaziland showing location of study areas 6 3. RESULTS 3.1 Community perception on climate change and climate change adaptation The community had some knowledge about climate change. The reported signs of climate changes included drought, poor rains, change in rainfall pattern and heat (Table 2). Table 2. Observed changes associated to climate change as perceived by the community Observed change Persistent drought Poor rainfalls Very hot summers Change in weather pattern Extreme cold winters Low river flows Strong winds Severe hail storms Floods Strong winds Drying of swamps Number of Ranking responses 20 1 19 2 17 3 17 3 8 5 4 6 4 6 4 6 3 9 2 10 1 11 The effect of climate change felt by the community included inadequate food supply, poor pastures, poor yields and death of livestock (Table 3). Table 3. Effects of climate change as observed by the community Observed change Inadequate food supply Poor crop yields Poor performance of pastures Poverty Death of livestock Sickness due to extreme heat Number of Ranking responses 10 1 10 1 10 1 7 4 7 4 6 6 Most of the farmers did not provide any scientifically proven cause of climate change. The causes cited included that of community not keeping Swazi customs and that being an act of God (Table 4). 7 Table 4. Causes of climate change as perceived by community Perceived cause Industrial pollution Breakdown of tradition Community disobeying God Biblical manifestation Supernatural powers Destruction of nature Car gas emission Number of Ranking responses 22 1 12 2 9 3 9 3 7 5 7 5 6 7 The means of mitigating and reducing vulnerability to climate change observed by community members include selling of livestock in order to buy food, buying of water from those with boreholes, provision of food aid to community members by NGOs and private sector, and getting food rations from other community members (Box 1). Box 1. Ways of mitigating and reducing vulnerability to climate change observed by community members Selling of livestock in order to buy food and to pay school fees Buying of water from those with boreholes Provision of food aid to community members by NGOs and private companies Getting food rations from other community members Getting water from schools that have boreholes and other reliable water sources Water harvesting from roofs Water recycling Pooling of resources through societies Elder people get social grant from government NGOs provide seeds and other farming inputs to needy members of community Mixed cropping and crop diversification Growing of vegetables under irrigation The community members suggested several means of mitigating effects of climate change. They included provision of community with water for irrigation, praying for God’s interventions, reducing production of greenhouse gases and educating communities about climate change (Table 5). 8 Table 5. Strategies to mitigate effects of climate change suggested by community Strategy Number of Ranking responses Provide community with water for irrigation 20 1 Pray for God’s intervention 11 2 Reduce production of gases 9 3 Educate communities about climate change 8 4 Plant trees and control deforestation 6 5 Keep customs 5 6 Provide farming inputs to communities 2 7 Create employment opportunities to rural 2 7 communities Provide food aid to those in need 2 7 Plant drought resistant crops 1 10 Practise organic farming 1 10 3.2 Source of information on climate change and climate change adaptation Community members did not have adequate information on climate change and climate change adaptation. The limited information accessible to many communities was through the local radio in the form of daily weather forecast. The information was found to be not adequate and of a very short term. The feeling of the community was that weather forecast should provide medium to long-term information. The weather prediction focused on major towns, and was of less relevance to many communities. Communities suggested an effective early warning system to operate at constituency level. They specified need for weather stations at community levels in order for them to monitor and record weather data. An automatic weather station was installed by the National Meteorological Services with the aim of providing climatic data to the Somntongo community. However the weather data from the station was sent remotely to the offices of Swaziland Meteorological Services at Mbabane, and the community did not benefit directly from it. Members of the community had the perception that the station was not functional. 3.3 National response on climate change in Swaziland The Swaziland’s First National Communication to the UNFCCC suggested several adaptation options for the different sectors. For water resources the suggested options included water conservation, dam construction, technological change and land use management (Government of Swaziland, 2000). For the agricultural sector the suggested adaptation options included the growing of maize varieties that were tolerant to high temperatures and changing from growing traditional crops to other crops that are tolerant to the conditions brought about by climatic change (Government of Swaziland, 2000a). The approach taken by the Government of Swaziland in promoting access to water for irrigation has been to invest in major water infrastructure. This has been done through building dams and providing infrastructure for farmers to irrigate their crops. The projects include the Vuvulane Irrigated Farms, The Komati Downstream Development 9 Schemes and the Lower Usuthu Smallholder Irrigation Project (Manyatsi, 2005). Some non-governmental organisations such as the Swaziland Farmers Development Foundation and the Women Resource Centre have played roles in promoting access and use of water resources by using micro water management technologies in community projects (Manyatsi, 2005) The country does not have any crop breeding activities. Seed is mainly imported from South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe (SADC, 2004). Reporting on the seed situation in Swaziland at the start of the 2003/04 planting season, the SADC seed update noted that the seeds were adequate to satisfy local demands. Farmers were however complaining that certified seed were very expensive and as a result the majority of farmers could not afford to purchase it (SADC, 2004). There are currently no government interventions to help those who could not afford the amount of seed for the size of land they had. The Extension Services of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has a programme of encouraging farmers to grow crops that were tolerant to drought such as sorghum and cassava in the drought prone areas such as the lowveld and the lower middleveld (Government of Swaziland, 2007). The greatest constrain in technology for climate change adaptation is the generation and dissemination of information and the results of scientific studies aimed at improving climate change adaptation. There is very little research undertaken under the field of climate change and climate change adaptation. There is no formal and effective mode of communication between government institutions, institutions of higher learning and research institutions, NGOs and farmers. 3 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 3.1 Conclusion Like many countries in the region, Swaziland is experiencing a number of natural disasters that include drought, occasional floods, cyclones, hailstorms, windstorms and wild fires. It is estimated that about 40% of Swaziland’s population are facing acute food and water shortage due to the prevailing drought. Climate change is a national pressing issue that is hindering achievement of Millennium Development Goals and even undoing the modest gains in economic growth that the country had achieved in the past few years. African countries continue to ignore climate change, and climate change is often taken as a problem of the future. The majority of the community members were aware of climate change and indicated that they were affected by climate change. However the majority of the community members attributed the climate change to non-scientifically proven causes such as breakdown of tradition, biblical manifestation and supernatural powers. In formulating measures to mitigate the effects of climate change, the beliefs and concerns of the community needs to be taken into consideration. 3.2 Recommendations The following recommendations are made based on the study: 1. The country should formulate climate change specific policy to address climate change adaptations. Such policy should include altering cropping patterns and the mixture of crops grown to reduce some of climate change related losses, and breeding of varieties whose maturity stages are better adapted to the projected climate. 10 2. Communities should be taught on climate change issues, including causes, effects and means that they can use to reducing their vulnerability to climate change. This could be done through regular radio programmes. 3. Weather forecast reports should give projections for a period of at least three months in order for farmers to make decisions on agricultural activities. 4. 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