Download Manyatsi, AM - IHE Delft Institute for Water Education

CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AS
PERCIEVED BY RURAL COMMUNITIES IN SWAZILAND
Absalom M. Manyatsi*
Department of Land Use and Mechanisation, University of Swaziland, P.O. Luyengo,
Swaziland
The objective of the research was to find out what rural communities know about climate
change and climate change adaptation, and their perception of climate change. Interviews
were conducted to a total of 60 members of the rural communities (20 from each
community) selected from Middleveld ecological zone, Lowveld ecological zone and the
Lubombo ecological zone. The reported signs of climate changes included late rains, low
rains, drought and famine. The effect of climate change felt by community members
included failure of crops, death of livestock and low crop yields. The majority of the
community members did not provide any scientifically proven cause of climate change.
The causes cited included that of community not keeping Swazi customs, supernatural
powers and that of being an act of God. The farming methods adopted to mitigate climate
change included mixed cropping and growing of vegetables under irrigation. The other
climate change adaptation strategies observed by community members included pooling
of resources through societies, provision of food rations to community members by
NGOs and private companies, as well as feeding schemes to school children. The
strategies suggested by community members to mitigate and reduce effects of climate
change included provision of water for irrigation, praying for God’s intervention,
reducing production of greenhouse gases and provision of farming inputs to communities.
Community members did not have adequate information on climate change and climate
change adaptation. The limited information accessible to many communities was through
the local radio in the form of daily weather forecast. The information was found to be
lacking details and of a very short term. The feeling of the community members was that
weather forecast should provide medium to long-term information. The weather
prediction focused on major towns, and was of less relevance to many communities.
Communities suggested an effective early warning system to operate at constituency
level. They specified need for weather stations at community levels in order for them to
monitor and record weather data.
Keywords: Adaptation, Coping strategies, National response
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background information for country
The Kingdom of Swaziland covers an area of 17,364 km2 and lies between latitudes 26 oS
and 27 oS and longitudes 31oE and 33 oE. It is surrounded on the north, west, and
southern sides by the Republic of South Africa and on the east by Mozambique (Fig. 1).
The two major towns/cities in the country are Mbabane and Manzini, with Mbabane
being the capital city. The total population according to the 1997 census was 929,718 of
which 489,564 (52%) were females, while 440,154 (47.3%) were males. In 2004 the
*
Phone: +268 527 4021 Fax: +268 527 4441
E-mail: [email protected]
1
population was estimated at 1,169,240, with population growth rate estimated at 0.55%
(CIA, 2005). The population estimates took into account the effects of high mortality due
to AIDS related ailments. The HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate was estimated at 39%.
GDP real growth rate was estimated at 2.2% in 2004, with GDP per capita (purchasing
power parity) estimated at $4,900. Agriculture contributed 16.2% of GDP, with industry
and services contributing 43.2% and 40.5% respectively (CIA, 2005). About 77% of the
population lived in the rural areas, with 23% in urban areas (Government of Swaziland,
1997). About 30% of the population faced food shortages in 2005/2006, and relied on
donated food. It is estimated that about 40% of the population are facing acute food and
water shortage in 2007 after the worst harvest in the country’s recorded history (IRIN,
2007)
1.2 Climate change and its effects
Climate change has emerged as one of the main challenges humankind will have to face
for many years to come. It could become a major threat to world food security, as it has a
strong impact on food production, access and distribution. Abnormal changes in
temperature and rainfall, and the increasing frequency and intensity of droughts and
floods have long-term implications for the viability and productivity of world agroecosystems. Agriculture is the sector most affected by changes in climate patterns and
will be increasingly vulnerable in the future. Especially at risk are developing counties,
which are highly dependent on agriculture and have fewer resources and options to
combat damage from climate change. Agriculture is both a culprit and a victim when it
comes to climate change. It is estimated that the livestock sector alone accounts for 18
percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, while deforestation is responsible for 18
percent of carbon dioxide emissions (FAO, 2007). According to FAO, introducing
improved livestock management and crop practices, couple with adaptive management of
forests could have significant impact on climate change. Adopting land use practices in
agriculture such as conservation agriculture would also help to maintain significant
amounts of carbon in the soil (FAO, 2007). Africa's contribution to the increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases has been minimal, yet according to the IPCC, Africa
is the most vulnerable continent to climate change as widespread poverty severely limits
its capabilities to adapt (IPCC, 2007). For Africa, the total contribution of emissions of
greenhouse gases is less than 7% of the world’s greenhouse emissions (Olsen, 2006).
Developing countries will be the hardest hot by the effects of climate change. The effects
of climate change will be felt sooner than scientists realised (IPCC, 2007) Hundreds of
millions of people in developing nations will face natural disasters, water shortage and
hunger due to the effects of climate change. Extreme weather events are likely to become
more intense and more frequent, while higher global temperatures could affect crops and
water supplies and spread disease. Matondo et al. (2005) reported that there will be
reduction in runoff under changed climatic conditions in Swaziland, and the available
water resources will be less in the future. The effect on ecosystems could be equally
severe, with up to 30% of plant and animal species at risk of extinction if the average rise
in global temperatures exceeds 1.5 to 2.5 oC (IPCC, 2007). Consequences of rising
temperatures are already being felt on every continent, and sooner than expected. Parts of
the Arctic experienced an unprecedented heat wave in the summer of 2007, with one
research station in the Canadian High Arctic recording temperatures above 20 oC, about
2
15 oC higher than the long-term average. The high temperatures were accompanied by a
dramatic melting of Arctic sea ice in September 2007 to the lowest levels ever recorded
(Connor, 2007).
1.3 Institutions responsible for climatic change issues
The Swaziland Meteorological Services is mandated to monitor the weather and climate
in order to provide the necessary information and give advice to the different sectors of
the economy. It carries out continuous observations of the weather, issue warnings and
information to the farming community and the public, and update the national climate
database (Swaziland Meteorological Services, 2007). In its capacity as host for the
National Focal Point in international climate change convention, the Swaziland
Meteorological Services represents the Government of Swaziland in international climate
negotiations. The other government institutions that are relevant to climate change and
climate change adaptation are the Swaziland Environment Authority, the Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy and the
Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communication (Government of Swaziland,
2007). The Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC), is a parastatal organization
that is responsible for conserving nature and cultural heritage in Swaziland (SNTC,
2007). The Coordinating Assemble of Non Governmental Organisations (CANGO)
provides services that improve the capacity of local non-governmental organizations,
some of which are involved in climate change issues (CANGO, 2007).
1.4 Policy and legislative for climate change
Research has shown that climate change vulnerability can be reduced through human
adaptation. Some of these adaptations would be motivated by self interest (such as
adjustment on farming practices, while others would need an active role by government
in implementing them (Butt et al. 2006). Some adaptation might require stimulating
policy actions focusing on climate change impacts (Boere and Taylor, 2004; Butt et al.,
2006). Climate specific policy may directly address climate change adaptations by
altering research and extension funding regarding the development of high-temperatureresistant varieties and facilitating shifts in cropping patterns to better suit the altered
climate (Butt et al., 2006).
Swaziland signed and ratified both the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol. Following the signing of Convention and
protocol the country produced its first national communication to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2000. The report provided an overview of
national inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of
greenhouse gases. On aggregate, taking into account the amounts of emissions and sinks
in all sectors, Swaziland’s final greenhouse gases budget was found to be of a net carbon
dioxide sink. The predominant carbon uptake was by trees from commercial plantations
including non-forest trees in towns (Government of Swaziland, 2000).
The country has several environmental policies and legislations as shown in Table
1. They include the Forest Preservation Act of 1907, the National Trust Commission Act
of 1972, the Water Act of 2003 and the Disaster Management Act of 2006. However
there is no policy that is directed to climate change and climate change adaptation. In a
3
National Agriculture Summit held from the 18th to the 20th of July 2007 it was noted that
the existing policies and action plans did not address the failure of the agriculture
industry brought about by climate change. In summing up the effect of global warming
and climatic change in the agricultural sector in Swaziland, during the agriculture
summit, Noah Nkambule the retired Principal Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives stated that climatic change was a major challenge facing the agriculture
industry. He said in the past, ploughing season was predictable to farmers who started
cultivating their fields as summer season approached. He further stated that it has become
very difficult for farmers to produce as the effects of global warming hit the country
(verbal communication with Noah Nkambule). The country is faced with drought across
all regions and there is need to establish secure water supply for all. The summit
proposed a review of policies and action plans.
1.5 Adaptation and coping with climate change
Adaptation and coping with climate change is complex and it involves a range of social
and economic factors including education and literacy as well as creative financial and
technological solutions, including a better understanding and application of indigenous
knowledge and traditional coping strategies (Science News, 2007). In semi-arid areas
rainwater harvesting can play a role as an irrigation and drinking water source. In
agriculture other factors could be investigated to enhance resilience to shocks such as
drought which include national grain reserves, grain futures markets, weather insurance
and school feeding schemes (Science News, 2007). The success of climate change
adaptation strategies will depend on a number of factors including informed society on
climate change and its impact, institutional set-up for implementation of climate change
adaptation strategies, policies to support strategies, involvement of broad spectrum of
stakeholder, incentives to implement climate change adaptation strategies and availability
of funds to implement strategies (TEARFUND, 2006). TEARFUND (2006) suggested
that climate change information should be made relevant to a particular sector, and it
should raise awareness of the likely impacts of climate change.
4
Table 1. Policy and legislation relevant to the environment
POLICY/LEGISLATION
The Forests Preservation
Act of 1907 (Government
of Swaziland, 1907)
RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
The Act makes provision for the preservation of trees and forests
growing on government land, and on Swazi Nation Land. It
prohibits the cutting down, damage, removal, sell or purchase of
indigenous or government timber without the permission of the
Minister of Agriculture.
The Private Forests Act of The Act provides for the better regulation and protection of private
1951 (Government
of forests in the country.
Swaziland, 1951)
The Grass Fire Act of 1955 The Act consolidates laws relating to grass burning and grass fire.
(Government of Swaziland, It has an implication in climate change, as grass burning and grass
1955)
fires contribute to accumulation of greenhouse gases. It regulates
the interval and period at which fire can be set on grass.
The
National
Trust The Act provides for the operation of cultural institutions and the
Commission Act of 1972 proclamation of national parks and monuments. The national parks
(Government of Swaziland, are protected from anthropogenic activities, and the trees and other
1972)
vegetation act as sink for greenhouse gases produced elsewhere.
The Waste Regulations of The regulations regulate the management of solid waste and liquid
2000 (Government
of waste disposal on land. It prohibits persons from disposing of
Swaziland, 2000b)
commercial or industrial, waste, or household waste produced in
urban areas, except at an approved waste disposal facility. It also
prohibits the import of hazardous waste into the country.
The Environmental Audit, It requires any operator who undertakes developments to submit an
Assessment and Review Environmental Assessment report and a Comprehensive Mitigation
Regulations
of
2000 Plan to the Swaziland Environmental Authority before permission
(Government of Swaziland, can be given to undertake the developments. The impact of the
2000c)
development to climate change is taken into consideration when
considering the Environmental Assessment.
The
Environmental The Act provides and promotes the enhancement, protection and
Management Act of 2002 conservation of the environment and sustainable management of
(Government of Swaziland, natural resources. It advocates for minimizing of generation of
2002b)
waste.
The Water Act of 2003 The Water Act established a National Water Authority that is
(Government of Swaziland, responsible for advising the Minister responsible on matters related
2003)
to water use and distribution. It also establishes other institutions
including the River Basin Authorities, the Water Apportionment
Board, the Irrigation Districts and the Water Users Associations.
The Disaster Management The Act sets up a national disaster management policy and plans in
Act of 2006 (Government order to avoid or minimize potential losses from hazards, to
of Swaziland, 2006)
provide timely and appropriate assistance to victims and their
dependents in the event of a disaster. Swaziland is prone to
disasters associated with climate change. These disasters include
drought, famine, occasional floods and storms.
5
2.
METHODOLOGY
Interview guides were prepared and reviewed by a panel of experts in climate change and
climate change adaptation for content and validity. Seven research assistants with
undergraduate (Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Arts) qualifications were trained to
conduct interviews. Interviews were conducted to a total of 60 members of the rural
community (20 from each community) selected from Mbekelweni (Middleveld zone),
Somntogo (Lowveld zone) and Shewula (Lubombo zone) as shown in Fig. 1. The
interviews provided exploratory information as the sample size fell short of a real
representation of the population
Figure 1. Map of Swaziland showing location of study areas
6
3. RESULTS
3.1 Community perception on climate change and climate change adaptation
The community had some knowledge about climate change. The reported signs of
climate changes included drought, poor rains, change in rainfall pattern and heat (Table
2).
Table 2. Observed changes associated to climate change as perceived by the community
Observed change
Persistent drought
Poor rainfalls
Very hot summers
Change in weather pattern
Extreme cold winters
Low river flows
Strong winds
Severe hail storms
Floods
Strong winds
Drying of swamps
Number of Ranking
responses
20
1
19
2
17
3
17
3
8
5
4
6
4
6
4
6
3
9
2
10
1
11
The effect of climate change felt by the community included inadequate food supply,
poor pastures, poor yields and death of livestock (Table 3).
Table 3. Effects of climate change as observed by the community
Observed change
Inadequate food supply
Poor crop yields
Poor performance of pastures
Poverty
Death of livestock
Sickness due to extreme heat
Number of Ranking
responses
10
1
10
1
10
1
7
4
7
4
6
6
Most of the farmers did not provide any scientifically proven cause of climate change.
The causes cited included that of community not keeping Swazi customs and that being
an act of God (Table 4).
7
Table 4. Causes of climate change as perceived by community
Perceived cause
Industrial pollution
Breakdown of tradition
Community disobeying God
Biblical manifestation
Supernatural powers
Destruction of nature
Car gas emission
Number of Ranking
responses
22
1
12
2
9
3
9
3
7
5
7
5
6
7
The means of mitigating and reducing vulnerability to climate change observed by
community members include selling of livestock in order to buy food, buying of water
from those with boreholes, provision of food aid to community members by NGOs and
private sector, and getting food rations from other community members (Box 1).
Box 1. Ways of mitigating and reducing vulnerability to climate change observed by
community members












Selling of livestock in order to buy food and to pay school fees
Buying of water from those with boreholes
Provision of food aid to community members by NGOs and private companies
Getting food rations from other community members
Getting water from schools that have boreholes and other reliable water sources
Water harvesting from roofs
Water recycling
Pooling of resources through societies
Elder people get social grant from government
NGOs provide seeds and other farming inputs to needy members of community
Mixed cropping and crop diversification
Growing of vegetables under irrigation
The community members suggested several means of mitigating effects of climate
change. They included provision of community with water for irrigation, praying for
God’s interventions, reducing production of greenhouse gases and educating
communities about climate change (Table 5).
8
Table 5. Strategies to mitigate effects of climate change suggested by community
Strategy
Number of Ranking
responses
Provide community with water for irrigation
20
1
Pray for God’s intervention
11
2
Reduce production of gases
9
3
Educate communities about climate change
8
4
Plant trees and control deforestation
6
5
Keep customs
5
6
Provide farming inputs to communities
2
7
Create employment opportunities to rural 2
7
communities
Provide food aid to those in need
2
7
Plant drought resistant crops
1
10
Practise organic farming
1
10
3.2 Source of information on climate change and climate change adaptation
Community members did not have adequate information on climate change and climate
change adaptation. The limited information accessible to many communities was through
the local radio in the form of daily weather forecast. The information was found to be not
adequate and of a very short term. The feeling of the community was that weather
forecast should provide medium to long-term information. The weather prediction
focused on major towns, and was of less relevance to many communities. Communities
suggested an effective early warning system to operate at constituency level. They
specified need for weather stations at community levels in order for them to monitor and
record weather data. An automatic weather station was installed by the National
Meteorological Services with the aim of providing climatic data to the Somntongo
community. However the weather data from the station was sent remotely to the offices
of Swaziland Meteorological Services at Mbabane, and the community did not benefit
directly from it. Members of the community had the perception that the station was not
functional.
3.3 National response on climate change in Swaziland
The Swaziland’s First National Communication to the UNFCCC suggested several
adaptation options for the different sectors. For water resources the suggested options
included water conservation, dam construction, technological change and land use
management (Government of Swaziland, 2000). For the agricultural sector the suggested
adaptation options included the growing of maize varieties that were tolerant to high
temperatures and changing from growing traditional crops to other crops that are tolerant
to the conditions brought about by climatic change (Government of Swaziland, 2000a).
The approach taken by the Government of Swaziland in promoting access to water for
irrigation has been to invest in major water infrastructure. This has been done through
building dams and providing infrastructure for farmers to irrigate their crops. The
projects include the Vuvulane Irrigated Farms, The Komati Downstream Development
9
Schemes and the Lower Usuthu Smallholder Irrigation Project (Manyatsi, 2005). Some
non-governmental organisations such as the Swaziland Farmers Development Foundation
and the Women Resource Centre have played roles in promoting access and use of water
resources by using micro water management technologies in community projects
(Manyatsi, 2005)
The country does not have any crop breeding activities. Seed is mainly imported
from South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe (SADC, 2004). Reporting on the seed
situation in Swaziland at the start of the 2003/04 planting season, the SADC seed update
noted that the seeds were adequate to satisfy local demands. Farmers were however
complaining that certified seed were very expensive and as a result the majority of
farmers could not afford to purchase it (SADC, 2004). There are currently no government
interventions to help those who could not afford the amount of seed for the size of land
they had. The Extension Services of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has a
programme of encouraging farmers to grow crops that were tolerant to drought such as
sorghum and cassava in the drought prone areas such as the lowveld and the lower
middleveld (Government of Swaziland, 2007).
The greatest constrain in technology for climate change adaptation is the
generation and dissemination of information and the results of scientific studies aimed at
improving climate change adaptation. There is very little research undertaken under the
field of climate change and climate change adaptation. There is no formal and effective
mode of communication between government institutions, institutions of higher learning
and research institutions, NGOs and farmers.
3
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1
Conclusion
Like many countries in the region, Swaziland is experiencing a number of natural
disasters that include drought, occasional floods, cyclones, hailstorms, windstorms and
wild fires. It is estimated that about 40% of Swaziland’s population are facing acute food
and water shortage due to the prevailing drought. Climate change is a national pressing
issue that is hindering achievement of Millennium Development Goals and even undoing
the modest gains in economic growth that the country had achieved in the past few years.
African countries continue to ignore climate change, and climate change is often taken as
a problem of the future. The majority of the community members were aware of climate
change and indicated that they were affected by climate change. However the majority of
the community members attributed the climate change to non-scientifically proven causes
such as breakdown of tradition, biblical manifestation and supernatural powers. In
formulating measures to mitigate the effects of climate change, the beliefs and concerns
of the community needs to be taken into consideration.
3.2
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made based on the study:
1. The country should formulate climate change specific policy to address climate
change adaptations. Such policy should include altering cropping patterns and the
mixture of crops grown to reduce some of climate change related losses, and breeding
of varieties whose maturity stages are better adapted to the projected climate.
10
2. Communities should be taught on climate change issues, including causes, effects and
means that they can use to reducing their vulnerability to climate change. This could
be done through regular radio programmes.
3. Weather forecast reports should give projections for a period of at least three months
in order for farmers to make decisions on agricultural activities.
4. The country should produce a yearly country report on climate change and climate
change adaptation strategies.
5
REFERENCES
AllAfrica.com, 2007. Climate top news. <http://allafrica.com/climate. (accessed
02.08.07).
Boer G.C. and Taylor D.C., 2004. Global and regional governmental policy and treaties
as tools towards the mitigation of the effect of climate change on waterbirds. Ibis
146 (Suppl. 1), 111-119.
Butt T.A., McCarl B.A., and Kergna A.O., 2006. Policies for reducing agricultural sector
vulnerability to climate change. Climate Policy 5, 583-598
CANGO,
2007.
Building
civil
society-Capacity
to
engage
policy.
<http://www.cango.org.sz. (accessed 19.07.07)
CIA,
2005.
The
world
fact
book-Swaziland.
<http/www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/wz.html. (accessed 11.04.05)
Connor. S., 2007. Record 22oC temperatures in Arctic heat wave.
<http://environment.independent.co.uk/climate_change/article3021309.ece.
(accessed 15.10.07).
FAO, 2007. Africa: Climate change challenges agriculture.
<http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/12337. (accessed 12.10.07).
Government of Swaziland, 1907. The Forests Preservation Act of 1907. Ministry of Justice,
Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 1951. The Private Forests Act of 1951. Ministry of Justice,
Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 1955. The Grass Fire Act of 1955. Ministry of Justice, Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 1972. The National Trust Commission Act of 1972. Ministry of
Justice, Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 1997. Report on the 1997 Swaziland Population and Housing
Census. Central Statistics office, Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 2000a. First National Communication to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change. National Report on Climate Change.
Ministry of Public Works and Transport, Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 2000b. The Waste Regulations of 2000. Ministry of Justice,
Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 2000c. The Environmental Audit, Assessment and Review
Regulations of 2000. Ministry of Justice, Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 2002. The Environmental Management Act of 2002. Ministry of
Justice, Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 2003. The Water Act of 2003, Ministry of Justice, Mbabane.
11
Government of Swaziland, 2005. Draft National Irrigation Policy. Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives, Mbabane.
Government of Swaziland, 2007. Swaziland Government. <http://www.gov.sz. (accessed
19.07.07).
IPCC, 2007. Climate change 2007: Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability. IPCC WGII Fourth Assessment Report.
<http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM6avr07.pdf. (accessed 13.11.07).
IRIN,
2007.
Humanitarian
news
and
analysis.
<http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=73337. (accessed 02.08.07).
Manyatsi A.M., 2005. Land and water management: Swaziland country situation analysis.
In Nhira C and Mapiki A (eds). Regional situation analysis. SADC Land and Water
Management Applied Research Programme. Gaborone, Pages 113-126.
Matondo, J.I., Peter, G., and Msibi, K.M., 2005. Managing water under climatic change
for peace and prosperity in Swaziland. Physics and Chemistry of Earth 30, 943949.
Murdoch, G., 1968. Soils and land capability of Swaziland. Ministry of Agriculture,
Mbabane.
Olsen K.H., 2006. National ownership in the implementation of global climate policy in
Uganda. Climate Policy 5, 599-612.
SADC, 2004. SADC seed update. A monthly electronic publication of the SADC Seed
Security Network. Issue Number 11. FANR, Gaborone.
Science News, 2007. IPCC Report Underlines Risks to Africa’s Agriculture,
Infrastructure, Wildlife and coastal zones from rising greenhouse gases.
<http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070410141336.htm. (accessed
31.10.07).
SNTC, 200). Swaziland National Trust Commission. <http://www.sntc.org.sz. (accessed
19.07.07).
Swaziland Meteorological Services, 2007. Swaziland Meteorological Services.
<http://www.swazimet.gov.sz. (accessed 17.07.07)
TEARFUND, 2006. Overcoming the barriers: mainstreaming climate change adaptation
in developing countries. Institute of Development Studies.
<http://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/pvty/ClimateChange/adaptationtearfund.html.
(accessed 31.10.07).
12