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COLLEGE OF EDUCATION GRADUATE SCHOOL EM 502: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS Block 3: Nature, Theories And Application Of Motivation, Needs And Values SUBJECT: PROFESSOR: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE ORGANIZATION JOSE RABBI B. MALAGA, MIM MAED REPORTER: TOPIC: DENNISSA D. DA-ANOY DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION Definition of Motivation: It refers to the WHY and CAUSE of behaviour. it is the strength of the drives towards an action. Intrinsic inducement that propels an individual to think, feel and performed in certain ways. Basic Motivation Model HISTORICAL VIEWS OF MOTIVATION Evolution can be traced from scientific management, through the human relations movement, to the human resource approach. Scientific management: The assumptions of scientific management were that work is inherently unpleasant for most people and the money they earn is more important to employees than is the nature of the job they are performing. Human relations movement: This school of thought emphasized the role of social processes in organizations and assumed that the need for belongingness and the need to feel useful are more important than money in motivating employees. Human resource approach: This view assumes that people want to contribute to organizational effectiveness and are able to make genuine contributions. The organization's responsibility is to create a work environment that makes full use of available human resources. The human resource approach guides most thinking about motivation today, but three integrative approaches conceptualize motivation more completely: need-based, processbased, and reinforcement-based approaches. Sources of Motivation Different sources of motivation exist and this can have either positive or negative results on a person. Two sources of motivation below: Intrinsic motivation According to (James 1998), intrinsic motivation is choosing to do an activity for no compelling reasons, beyond the satisfaction derived from the activity itself-it’s what motivates us to do something when we don’t have to do anything. Furthermore in the work of (Deci and Richard 1985), intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that source comes from inside an individual rather than from any external or outside rewards or punishments. The motivation comes from the pleasure one can get from the task itself, completing the task or just working on a task. However, it doesn’t mean that one will not seek for a reward. Terry (2013) defines intrinsic motivation as motivation that stems directly from the act itself, rather than something beyond it. Intrinsic rewards: tend to give personal satisfaction to individual Information / feedback Recognition Trust Relationship Empowerment Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation is related to tangible rewards such as salary and fringe benefits, security, promotion, contract of service, the work environment and conditions of work. They are called “extrinsic” because they are external to the work itself and other people control their size and whether or not they are granted. Extrinsic motivation played a dominant role in earlier eras, when work was generally more routine and bureaucratic, and when complying with rules and procedures was paramount. This job offered workers few intrinsic motivations, so that extrinsic motivations were often the only motivational tools available to organizations. Extrinsic rewards: concrete rewards that employee receive Bonuses Salary raise Gifts Promotion Three Pattern of Motivation (1) Achievement Motivation - It is the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with achievement motivation wishes to achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of success. (2) Affiliation Motivation - It is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Persons with affiliation motivation perform work better when they are complimented for their favorable attitudes and co-operation. (3)Power Motivation - It is the drive to influence people and change situations. Power motivated people wish to create an impact on their organization and are willing to take risks to do so. REPORTER: DINA E. TORENO THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION AND NEEDS SATISFACTION THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION • from the latin word motivare ------- meaning “ to move” • the why and cause of behavior • energizes behavior and gives it direction • refers to the whole class of drives, needs and similar forces that prompt a person to act in a certain way or to develop a tendency for specific behaviour THE BASIC MOTIVATION MODEL Needs and Drives --------tension------effort---------performance------reward Needs satisfaction INFLUENCE OF CULTURE Four concepts found to be useful in explaining behaviour patterns 1. Amor propio or self-esteem – this is a deep sense of dignity---a desire to be treated as a human being rather than a thing. 2. Hiya or embarrassment – this refers to a feeling of inferiority, shyness, and alienation which is a painful experience. 3. Utang na loob or obligation – this is a sense of gratitude for favours or help receive from others. 4. Pakikisama or getting together – this is a desire for smooth interpersonal relations. THEORY OF NEEDS: DAVID McCLLELAND 1. The need for Achievement – people with a high need for achievementhave an intense desire for success. 2. The need for power – these people are concerned with maintaining social relationships. 3. The need for affiliation – these people have great desire to influence people and control situations. NEEDS SATISFACTION Internal needs--------------behavior-----------------outcome Needs satisfaction MASLOW’ S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS ALDERFER’ S ERG MODEL Growth Self-esteem and Self Actualization Relatedness Being understood and accepted by people Existence Physiological and security factors Frederich Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene theory NEED TO AVOID PAIN NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT HYGIENE FACTOR MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS Job Context Job Content Extrinsic factors Intrinsic factors Dissatisfiers Satisfiers =========================================================== REPORTER: TOPIC: RONALIE R. CANJA TECHNOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR TECHNOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR The need for a technology of behaviour has been also stressed by Sanzotta, who outlines the steps in developing: a.Educate the manager toward understanding behaviour; b.Develop goals and objectives for human performance. c.Apply principles in the form of technology and method to achieve the desired results. It utilizes positive reinforcement upon the occurrence of a desired response. AN INTEGRATED MODEL OF MOTIVATION It is possible to become entrapped in the intricacies of human behaviour and it is easy to go astray in a maze of theories. FACTORS OF JOB- RELATED MOTIVATION: A. Environment factors like socio-economic and political conditions of country. B. Individual personality, mental ability, education work experience and organizational variables like structure, goals, size technology as impacted upon by environmental factors; C. Personal motivations, job and reward expectations; D. Effort; E. Perceived equitable reward; and satisfaction derived from work. INTEGRATED MODEL OF MOTIVATION A. Management, especially in developing countries, should be very perceptive of These environment factors even just to survive. B. Individual worker brings into his work setting not only himself but also his family, relatives and friends, figuratively speaking. C. Organizational Variables constituting a constellations of philosophy, funds, organization structure, material and physical resources, job design, reward structure, leader and followership and technology either facilitate or stifle the worker to higher. D. The worker’s expectations of himself, of his work and reward as influenced by the individual and organization variables stir him to exert effort to perform STUDIES ON WORKER MOTIVATION WHAT MOTIVATES US AT WORK? “WHEN WE THINK ABOUT HOW PEOPLE WORK, THE NAÏVE INTUITION WE HAVE IS THAT PEOPLE ARE LIKE RATS IN A MAZE,” BY DAN ARIELY 7 FASCINATING STUDIES THAT GIVE INSIGHTS 1. Seeing the fruits of ourlabor may make us more productive. 2. The less appreciated we feel our work is, the more money we want to do it. 3. The hardest a project is, the prouder we feel of it. 4. Knowing that our work helps others may increaseunconscious motivation. 5. The promise of helping others makes us more likely to follow rules. 6. The upshot: Helping others through what’s called “prosocialbehavior.” 7. Images that trigger positive emotions may actually help us focus. ========================================================================================== REPORTER: TOPIC: NEIL S. LACHICA BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION, ROLE OF EXPECTANCY AND FAIRNESS OF THE REWARD SYSTEM What is behavior modification? - Is a treatment approach, based on the principles of operant conditioning, that replaces undesirable behaviors with more desirable ones through positive or negative reinforcement. - It is the any process derived from learning theory where the goal is to change a person’s behavior or the way he or she interacts with the world. TWO MAIN CONCEPTS • 1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • 2. OPERANT CONDITIONING -classical conditioning refers to the pairing of naturally occuring stimulus-response chains with other stimuli in order to produce a similar response. EX.You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell -operant conditioning started as an experiment in learning and developed into the law of effect and our knowledge of reinforcement, punishment and extinction (the desired behavior is followed by a rewarding or reinforcing stimulus) EX. Your father gives you a credit card at the end of your first year in college because you did so well. As a result, your grades continue to get better in your second year • Behavior Modification is based on B.F. Skinner’s pioneering work on operant conditioning. Since then, behavior modification has gained much ground as a motivational tool. It involves the systematic application of rewards to effect desired behaviours. SHAPING • - refers to the reinforcement of bahaviors that approximate or come close to the desired new behavior. The procedure for producing new behavior is called shaping. • METHODS 4 WAYS IN WHICH TO SHAPE BEHAVIOR 1. positive reinforcement 2. negative reinforcement 3. punishment 4. extinction POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - If a behavior meets with favorable consequences, provides a favorable consequence that encourages the recurrence of a specified behavior. It is strengthened and is likely to be repeated. -positive reinforcement results from the application of a positive consequence following a desirable behavior. - the operation of presenting a positive reinforcer contingent upon a response is called positive reinforcement. Example: A student who studies deligently receives favorable consquences in the form of high grades. He continues to study hard. A worker who does a quality work receives praise he is encouraged to do quality work. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT -A behavior responsible for the removal of something undesirable is repeated when that desirable state is encountered again. It is characterized by the removal of an unwanted consequences upon correct behavior - negative reinforcement results from withholding a threatened negative consequence when a desirable behavior occur. - the operation of removing an aversive stimulus contingent upon a response is called negative reinforcement. Example: An electrician finds that when he wears safety gloves while working he will avoid the pain or death due to electric shock, he will continue to wear safety gloves. • Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen (the behavior) in order to avoid getting sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus). You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen (the behavior) in order to avoid getting in a fight with your roommate (removal of the aversive stimulus). Punishment • Refers to the provision of an unwanted consequence upon occurrence of incorrect behavior so as to discourage it. • Ex. An employee is suspended from work for habitual tardiness. • By definition, punishment is used to deter undesirable behavior. • According to Skinner there are limitations, “a person who has been punished is not inclined to behave in a given way; he learns how to avoid punishment. • Punishment does not encourage desirable behavior. • Supervisors who administers punishment is usually the same who offers positive reinforcement. EXTINCTION - eliminating any reinforcement that maintaining a behavior. - when a behavior is not reinforced, it tends to be gradually extinguished. - May occur when behavior is not accompanied by any significant results. It is not explicitly rewarded nor punished but simply ignored. Example: In a committee meeting, someone suggests several ideas for consideration but he does not receive any response. There is neither acceptance nor rejection, but the members simply move on to another topic each time. • what will happen? This person will no longer offer suggestions or he may not even bother to attend meetings anymore. Table 1.2 REINFORCEMENT GUIDELINES 1. 2. 3. 4. Specify behavior to be reinforced. Reinforce specified behavior at once. Reward small achievements as well. Provide material as well as nonmaterial incentives. 5. Offer small rewards too. 6. Reinforce an intermittent intervals. 1. the behavior to be reinforced should be clearly identified. 2. the reinforcement should be immediate. 3. The feedback mechanism should take account even of small achievements. 4. the system should offer both tangible as well as intangible rewards. 5. the value of small rewards should not be underestimated. 6. reinforcement should occur at variable intervals. Figure 1.9 Social Learning Theory Observation and experience Anticipated consequences behavior compare variance Actual consequences • People select behavior patterns by direct experience or by others. They are able to foresee the probable consequences of their actions and thereby alter their behavior accordingly. People actions are determined in large measure by anticipated consequences. Ex. A person does not walk through the rain and wet himself before he decides to use an umbrella. • The anticipated consequences represented symbolically in a person’s thoughts,motivated behavior in much the same way as actual consequences. • Man does not simply react he thinks before he acts. An employee will make judgements about the probable outcomes of his actions before he takes them. • What is relevant to him is whether his effort will result in performance ,performance will lead to rewards, and rewards will lead to satisfaction. • These are elements of Effort-performance-rewards-satisfaction chain. The higher the expectations , the stronger will be the motivation to perform. FIGURE 1.10 OPERATION OF THE EXPECTANCY THEORY valence INSTRUMENTALITY EXPECTANCY MOTIVATION EFFORT PERFORMANCE REWARDS: INTRINSIC /EXTRINSIC SATISFACTION Valence • is the value that a person places upon the reward associated with doing anything. It is an expresion of one’s preference for a reward. It reflects the intensity of one’s desire for a goal. • Ex. If an employee strongly desires recognition, then recognition has a high valence for him. Expectancy - relates to the connection between effort and performance. This is the confidence that the employee has that his effort will result in performance, the successful completion of a task. -the stronger the connection between effort and performance, the higher the expectancy. Ex. A functional specialist knows from experience that he can accomplish tasks if they fall within his area of specialization. • The formation of expectancies is influenced by the worker’s own evaluation of his competence. If he thinks of himself as possessing the requisite skills and abilities to do a job, fulfill role expectations, or meet challenges, then his expectancy assessment would be likely high. • It is one way of saying that If a person with high level of self-confidence tends to be more optimistic about work accomplishment. • If they think they are less capable then their expectancy assessment tends to be on the low side Strength of motivation /avoidance Motivation is the product of valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. Multiplicative combination of three variables results in an infinite number of possibilities. Only few are significant since valence can be either positive or negative. Table 1.3 Positive Motivation Positive valence Expectancy Instrumentality motivation 1. High High High strong 2. High High Low moderate 3. High Low High moderate 4. High Low Low weak Table 1.4 Negative Motivation-Avoidance Negative valence Expectancy Instrumentality avoidance A. High High High strong B. High High Low moderate C. High Low High moderate D. High Low Low weak III Fairness of the Reward System • The fairness of the reward system is a significant factor in motivation. Motivation occurs in social context. People make comparisons with each other, judgement about one another. • The notion of social comparison introduces a significant dimension which enhances understanding of motivation. The reward that is not fair will not motivate people. Equity theory • Figure 1.11 suggests how employees judge the fairness of the reward system. Fairness of the reward syatem is evaluated on the basis of: • A. The ratio between an employee’s outcomes and inputs. • B. On how this ratio compares with those of others J. Stacy Adams’ formulation of the equity theory, the reward system is fair when: Outcomes by a person outcomes by a another person Inputs by a person inputs by another person • Inputs consists of effort, education, experience, seniority, and task difficulty. • Outcomes may include pay and benefits as well as social and psychological rewards Figure 1.11 Equity Theory INPUTS Effort, education, seniority, job difficulty OUTCOMES Pay, Benefits, Recognition, promotion Inputs and outcomes are compared with those of others, too • In applying the equity model, the task of the manager is to determine how employees place values on their outcomes and inputs, who their referent persons are and how they assess those referent persons’ outcomes and inputs in relation to theirs, instead of merely forcing his own perceptions on them. Reactions to Inequity • The inequity theory makes a number of predictions about the behavioral reactions of people to perceived inequity. • Inequity influences behavior. Table 1.5 Table 1.5 Possible Behavioral Reactions to Perceived Inequity Over-reward Under-reward Work more Increase the quality and quantity of output Undervalue the reward Urge referent person to ask for more rewards Choose another referent person Work less Decrease the quality and quantity of output Overvalue the reward Ask for additional rewards, or leave the organization Choose another referent person • If the rewards are perceived as more than equitable, employess are likely to feel an imbalance and seek to restore the balance. They may increase their level of performance by working harder increasing the quality/quantity of outputs. • If rewards are less than equitable, they may decrease thir level of performance by working less reducing the quality/quantity of outputs. • In applying the equity model, the task of the manager is to determine how employees place values on their outcomes and inputs, who their referent persons are and how they assess those referent persons’ outcomes and inputs in relation to theirs, instead of merely forcing his own perceptions on them. References: Baron, Robert A., Greenberg, Jerald., Behavior in Organizations: Understanding and Managing the Human Side of Work. 3rd edition. Conell James V., Understanding Human Behavior. 4th edition. Copyright 1983. Encarta dictionaries Martires, C., Fule, G. Management of Human Behavior in Organizations.. Nevid, J. (2013). Psychology: Concepts and applications. Belmont, CA: Wadworth. Newstorm John W., Organizational Behavior…Human Behavior at Work. 12th edition. McGrawhill 2007. Web materials: http://www.academia.edu/ https://www.google.com.ph/=human+behavior+in+organization http://www.//humanbehaviorinorganization-by-parts www.slideshare.com