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Cellular
Respiration
Energy in Living Systems
Glycolysis
Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Metabolism without Oxygen
Cellular Respiration
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Cellular
Respiration
(continued)
Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic
Pathways
Regulation of Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
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Cellular Respiration > Energy in Living Systems
Energy in Living Systems
• Transforming Chemical Energy
• Electrons and Energy
• ATP in Metabolism
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Cellular Respiration > Glycolysis
Glycolysis
• Importance of Glycolysis
• The Energy-Requiring Steps of Glycolysis
• The Energy-Releasing Steps of Glycolysis
• Outcomes of Glycolysis
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Cellular Respiration > Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
• Breakdown of Pyruvate
• Acetyl CoA to CO2
• Citric Acid Cycle
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Cellular Respiration > Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation
• Electron Transport Chain
• Chemiosmosis and Oxidative Phosphorylation
• ATP Yield
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Cellular Respiration > Metabolism without Oxygen
Metabolism without Oxygen
• Anaerobic Cellular Respiration
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Cellular Respiration > Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid...
Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic
Pathways
• Connecting Other Sugars to Glucose Metabolism
• Connecting Proteins to Glucose Metabolism
• Connecting Lipids to Glucose Metabolism
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Cellular Respiration > Regulation of Cellular Respiration
Regulation of Cellular Respiration
• Regulatory Mechanisms for Cellular Respiration
• Control of Catabolic Pathways
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Appendix
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Cellular Respiration
Key terms
• acetyl CoA a molecule that conveys the carbon atoms from glycolysis (pyruvate) to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for
energy production
• adenosine triphosphate a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme, often called the "molecular unit
of energy currency" in intracellular energy transfer
• adenosine triphosphate a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme, often called the "molecular unit
of energy currency" in intracellular energy transfer
• adenosine triphosphate a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme, often called the "molecular unit
of energy currency" in intracellular energy transfer
• aerobic respiration the process of converting the biochemical energy in nutrients to ATP in the presence of oxygen
• allosteric a compound that binds to an inactive site, affecting the activity of an enzyme by changing the conformation of the
protein (can activate or deactivate)
• anaerobic respiration A form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen.
• archaea A group of single-celled microorganisms. They have no cell nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelles within
their cells.
• ATP synthase An important enzyme that provides energy for the cell to use through the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).
• beta-oxidation A process that takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and catabolizes fatty acids by converting them to
acetyl groups while producing NADH and FADH2.
• catabolism Destructive metabolism, usually including the release of energy and breakdown of materials.
• catabolism Destructive metabolism, usually including the release of energy and breakdown of materials.
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Cellular Respiration
• catabolism the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones usually accompanied by the release of energy
• cellular respiration the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert
biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
• chemiosmosis The movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient.
• citric acid cycle a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidization of
acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide
• complex A structure consisting of a central atom, molecule, or protein weakly connected to surrounding atoms, molecules, or
proteins.
• deamination The removal of an amino group from a compound.
• disaccharide A sugar, such as sucrose, maltose, or lactose, consisting of two monosaccharides combined together.
• electron shuttle molecules that bind and carry high-energy electrons between compounds in cellular pathways
• enzyme a globular protein that catalyses a biological chemical reaction
• fermentation An anaerobic biochemical reaction. When this reaction occurs in yeast, enzymes catalyze the conversion of
sugars to alcohol or acetic acid with the evolution of carbon dioxide.
• glucose a simple monosaccharide (sugar) with a molecular formula of C6H12O6; it is a principal source of energy for cellular
metabolism
• glycogen A polysaccharide that is the main form of carbohydrate storage in animals; converted to glucose as needed.
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Cellular Respiration
• glycolysis the cellular metabolic pathway of the simple sugar glucose to yield pyruvic acid and ATP as an energy source
• glycolysis the cellular metabolic pathway of the simple sugar glucose to yield pyruvic acid and ATP as an energy source
• heterotroph an organism that requires an external supply of energy in the form of food, as it cannot synthesize its own
• keto acid Any carboxylic acid that also contains a ketone group.
• kinase any of a group of enzymes that transfers phosphate groups from high-energy donor molecules, such as ATP, to specific
target molecules (substrates); the process is termed phosphorylation
• Krebs cycle a series of enzymatic reactions that occurs in all aerobic organisms; it involves the oxidative metabolism of acetyl
units and serves as the main source of cellular energy
• Krebs cycle a series of enzymatic reactions that occurs in all aerobic organisms; it involves the oxidative metabolism of acetyl
units and serves as the main source of cellular energy
• lipid A group of organic compounds including fats, oils, waxes, sterols, and triglycerides; characterized by being insoluble in
water; account for most of the fat present in the human body.
• metabolism the complete set of chemical reactions that occur in living cells
• mitochondria in cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed organelle, often described as
"cellular power plants" because they generate most of the ATP
• monosaccharide A simple sugar such as glucose, fructose, or deoxyribose that has a single ring.
• NADH nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) carrying two electrons and bonded with a hydrogen (H) ion; the reduced form
of NAD
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Cellular Respiration
• nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) An organic coenzyme involved in biological oxidation and reduction reactions.
• oxaloacetate a four carbon molecule that receives an acetyl group from acetyl CoA to form citrate, which enters the citric acid
cycle
• oxidation A reaction in which the atoms of an element lose electrons and the valence of the element increases.
• oxidative phosphorylation A metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
• phosphate Any salt or ester of phosphoric acid
• phosphofructokinase any of a group of kinase enzymes that convert fructose phosphates to biphosphate
• phosphorylation the addition of a phosphate group to a compound; often catalyzed by enzymes
• prosthetic group The non-protein component of a conjugated protein.
• pyruvate any salt or ester of pyruvic acid; the end product of glycolysis before entering the TCA cycle
• reduction A reaction in which electrons are gained and valence is reduced; often by the removal of oxygen or the addition of
hydrogen.
• TCA cycle an alternative name for the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle
• ubiquinone A lipid soluble substance that is a component of the electron transport chain and accepts electrons from complexes
I and II.
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Cellular Respiration
Energy Plant
This geothermal energy plant transforms thermal energy from deep in the ground into electrical energy, which can be easily used.
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Cellular Respiration
Protein phosphorylation
In phosphorylation reactions, the gamma phosphate of ATP is attached to a protein.
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Cellular Respiration
The first half of glycolysis: investment
The first half of glycolysis uses two ATP molecules in the phosphorylation of glucose, which is then split into two three-carbon molecules.
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Cellular Respiration
Anaerobic bacteria
The green color seen in these coastal waters is from an eruption of hydrogen sulfide-producing bacteria. These anaerobic, sulfate-reducing bacteria
release hydrogen sulfide gas as they decompose algae in the water.
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Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis
The glycolysis pathway is primarily regulated at the three key enzymatic steps (1, 2, and 7) as indicated. Note that the first two steps that are regulated
occur early in the pathway and involve hydrolysis of ATP.
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Cellular Respiration
Connection of Amino Acids to Glucose Metabolism Pathways
The carbon skeletons of certain amino acids (indicated in boxes) are derived from proteins and can feed into pyruvate, acetyl CoA, and the citric acid
cycle.
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Cellular Respiration
Breakdown of Pyruvate
Each pyruvate molecule loses a carboxylic group in the form of carbon dioxide. The remaining two carbons are then transferred to the enzyme CoA to
produce Acetyl CoA.
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Cellular Respiration
Acetyl CoA and the Citric Acid Cycle
For each molecule of acetyl CoA that enters the citric acid cycle, two carbon dioxide molecules are released, removing the carbons from the acetyl
group.
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Cellular Respiration
Citric Acid Cycle
Enzymes, isocitrate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, catalyze the reactions that make the first two molecules of NADH in the citric
acid cycle. Rates of the reaction decrease when sufficient ATP and NADH levels are reached.
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Cellular Respiration
Electron Chain Transport
Levels of ADP and ATP affect the rate of electron transport through this type of chain transport.
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Cellular Respiration
Adenosine triphosphate
ATP is the main source of energy in many living organisms.
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Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration in a eukaryotic cell
Glycolysis on the left portion of this illustration can be seen to yield 2 ATP molecules, while the Electron Transport Chain portion at the upper right will
yield the remaining 30-32 ATP molecules under the presence of oxygen.
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Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis produces 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules
Glycolysis, or the aerobic catabolic breakdown of glucose, produces energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and pyruvate, which itself enters the citric acid
cycle to produce more energy.
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Cellular Respiration
Lactic acid fermentation
Lactic acid fermentation is common in muscle cells that have run out of oxygen.
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Cellular Respiration
The second half of glycolysis: return on investment
The second half of glycolysis involves phosphorylation without ATP investment (step 6) and produces two NADH and four ATP molecules per glucose.
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Cellular Respiration
Fructose Metabolism
Although the metabolism of fructose and glucose share many of the same intermediate structures, they have very different metabolic fates in human
metabolism.
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Cellular Respiration
The structure of NADH and NAD+
The oxidized form of the electron carrier (NAD+) is shown on the left and the reduced form (NADH) is shown on the right. The nitrogenous base in
NADH has one more hydrogen ion and two more electrons than in NAD+.
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Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis is the first pathway of cellular respiration that oxidizes glucose molecules. It is followed by the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation to
produce ATP.
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Cellular Respiration
Adenosine triphosphate.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) has three phosphate groups that can be removed by hydrolysis to form ADP (adenosine diphosphate) or AMP (adenosine
monophosphate).The negative charges on the phosphate group naturally repel each other, requiring energy to bond them together and releasing energy
when these bonds are broken.
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Cellular Respiration
The citric acid cycle
In the citric acid cycle, the acetyl group from acetyl CoA is attached to a four-carbon oxaloacetate molecule to form a six-carbon citrate molecule.
Through a series of steps, citrate is oxidized, releasing two carbon dioxide molecules for each acetyl group fed into the cycle. In the process, three NAD+
molecules are reduced to NADH, one FAD molecule is reduced to FADH2, and one ATP or GTP (depending on the cell type) is produced (by substratelevel phosphorylation). Because the final product of the citric acid cycle is also the first reactant, the cycle runs continuously in the presence of sufficient
reactants.
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Cellular Respiration
Alcohol Fermentation
Fermentation of grape juice into wine produces CO2 as a byproduct. Fermentation tanks have valves so that the pressure inside the tanks created by the
carbon dioxide produced can be released.
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Cellular Respiration
The electron transport chain
The electron transport chain is a series of electron transporters embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttles electrons from NADH and
FADH2 to molecular oxygen. In the process, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, and oxygen is reduced to
form water.
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Cellular Respiration
Glucose Transport
GLUT4 is a glucose transporter that is stored in vesicles. A cascade of events that occurs upon insulin binding to a receptor in the plasma membrane
causes GLUT4-containing vesicles to fuse with the plasma membrane so that glucose may be transported into the cell.
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Cellular Respiration
Glycogen Structure
Schematic two-dimensional cross-sectional view of glycogen: A core protein of glycogenin is surrounded by branches of glucose units. The entire
globular granule may contain around 30,000 glucose units.
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Cellular Respiration
Glycogen Pathway
Glycogen from the liver and muscles, hydrolyzed into glucose-1-phosphate, together with fats and proteins, can feed into the catabolic pathways for
carbohydrates.
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Cellular Respiration
Chemiosmosis
In oxidative phosphorylation, the hydrogen ion gradient formed by the electron transport chain is used by ATP synthase to form ATP.
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Cellular Respiration
ATP Synthase
ATP synthase is a complex, molecular machine that uses a proton (H+) gradient to form ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
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Cellular Respiration
Attribution
• Wikipedia. "adenosine triphosphate." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adenosine%20triphosphate
• Wikipedia. "cellular respiration." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cellular%20respiration
• Wiktionary. "photosynthesis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/photosynthesis
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44430/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/electron-shuttle
• Wiktionary. "reduction." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reduction
• Wiktionary. "oxidation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/oxidation
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44431/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "phosphorylation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phosphorylation
• Wikipedia. "adenosine triphosphate." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adenosine%20triphosphate
• Wiktionary. "phosphate." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phosphate
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44431/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "heterotroph." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heterotroph
• Wiktionary. "glycolysis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glycolysis
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44432/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wikipedia. "adenosine triphosphate." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adenosine%20triphosphate
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Cellular Respiration
• Wiktionary. "glucose." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glucose
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44432/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "NADH." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/NADH
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44432/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "pyruvate." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pyruvate
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44432/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wikipedia. "acetyl CoA." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/acetyl%20CoA
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44433/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "Krebs cycle." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Krebs_cycle
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/tca-cycle
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/oxaloacetate
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 29, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44433/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "Krebs cycle." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Krebs_cycle
• Wikipedia. "mitochondria." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mitochondria
• Wikipedia. "citric acid cycle." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/citric%20acid%20cycle
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44433/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "prosthetic group." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prosthetic_group
• Wikipedia. "Oxidative phosphorylation." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation
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Cellular Respiration
• Wiktionary. "complex." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/complex
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44437/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
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• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013."
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Cellular Respiration
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