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Boundless Lecture Slides Available on the Boundless Teaching Platform Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Boundless Teaching Platform Boundless empowers educators to engage their students with affordable, customizable textbooks and intuitive teaching tools. The free Boundless Teaching Platform gives educators the ability to customize textbooks in more than 20 subjects that align to hundreds of popular titles. Get started by using high quality Boundless books, or make switching to our platform easier by building from Boundless content pre-organized to match the assigned textbook. This platform gives educators the tools they need to assign readings and assessments, monitor student activity, and lead their classes with pre-made teaching resources. Using Boundless Presentations The Appendix The appendix is for you to use to add depth and breadth to your lectures. You can simply drag and drop slides from the appendix into the main presentation to make for a richer lecture experience. Get started now at: http://boundless.com/teaching-platform Free to edit, share, and copy Feel free to edit, share, and make as many copies of the Boundless presentations as you like. We encourage you to take these presentations and make them your own. If you have any questions or problems please email: [email protected] Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com About Boundless Boundless is an innovative technology company making education more affordable and accessible for students everywhere. The company creates the world’s best open educational content in 20+ subjects that align to more than 1,000 popular college textbooks. Boundless integrates learning technology into all its premium books to help students study more efficiently at a fraction of the cost of traditional textbooks. The company also empowers educators to engage their students more effectively through customizable books and intuitive teaching tools as part of the Boundless Teaching Platform. More than 2 million learners access Boundless free and premium content each month across the company’s wide distribution platforms, including its website, iOS apps, Kindle books, and iBooks. To get started learning or teaching with Boundless, visit boundless.com. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance Nitrogenous Wastes Excretion Systems Human Osmoregulatory and Excretory Systems Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System > Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance • Introduction to Osmoregulation • Transport of Electrolytes across Cell Membranes • Concept of Osmolality and Milliequivalent • Osmoregulators and Osmoconformers Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/osmotic-regulation-and-the-excretory-system-41/osmoregulation-and-osmoticbalance-228/ Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System > Nitrogenous Wastes Nitrogenous Wastes • Nitrogenous Waste in Terrestrial Animals: The Urea Cycle • Nitrogenous Waste in Birds and Reptiles: Uric Acid Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/osmotic-regulation-and-the-excretory-system-41/nitrogenous-wastes-231/ Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System > Excretion Systems Excretion Systems • Contractile Vacuoles in Microorganisms • Flame Cells of Planaria and Nephridia of Worms • Malpighian Tubules of Insects Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/osmotic-regulation-and-the-excretory-system-41/excretion-systems-230/ Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System > Human Osmoregulatory and Excretory Systems Human Osmoregulatory and Excretory Systems • Kidney Structure • Nephron: The Functional Unit of the Kidney • Kidney Function and Physiology Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/osmotic-regulation-and-the-excretory-system-41/human-osmoregulatory-andexcretory-systems-229/ Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System > Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions • Epinephrine and Norepinephrine • Other Hormonal Controls for Osmoregulation Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/osmotic-regulation-and-the-excretory-system-41/hormonal-control-ofosmoregulatory-functions-232/ Appendix Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Key terms • active transport movement of a substance across a cell membrane against its concentration gradient (from low to high concentration) facilitated by ATP conversion • adrenergic containing or releasing adrenaline • angiotensin any of several polypeptides that narrow blood vessels and thus regulate arterial pressure • aquaporin any of a class of proteins that form pores in the membrane of biological cells • arteriole one of the small branches of an artery, especially one that connects with capillaries • catecholamine any of a class of aromatic amines derived from pyrocatechol that are hormones produced by the adrenal gland • contractile vacuole a vacuole that removes waste or excess water • countercurrent a current that flows against the prevailing one • electrolyte any of the various ions (such as sodium or chloride) that regulate the electric charge on cells and the flow of water across their membranes • electrolyte any of the various ions (such as sodium or chloride) that regulate the electric charge on cells and the flow of water across their membranes • epinephrine (adrenaline) an amino acid-derived hormone secreted by the adrenal gland in response to stress • euryhaline able to tolerate various saltwater concentrations Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System • facilitated diffusion The spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane passing through specific transmembrane integral proteins. • flame cell a specialized excretory cell found in the simplest freshwater invertebrates • glomerulus A small intertwined group of capillaries within a kidney's nephron that filters the blood to make urine. • guano the excrement of seabirds, cave-dwelling bats, pinnipeds, or birds more generally • hemolymph a circulating fluid in the bodies of some invertebrates that is the equivalent of blood • hypertonic having a greater osmotic pressure than another • hypoxanthine an intermediate in the biosynthesis of uric acid • loop of Henle A structure in a kidney's nephron that connects the proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule. • malpighian tubule a tubule that extends from the alimentary canal to the exterior of the organism, excreting water and wastes in the form of solid nitrogenous compounds • molality the concentration of a substance in solution, expressed as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent • molarity the number of moles of solute per liter of solution, giving a solution's molar concentration • mole in the International System of Units, the base unit of amount of substance Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System • nephridiopore the external opening of a nephridium, where waste is excreted from the cell • nephridium a tubular excretory organ in some invertebrates • nephrostome the funnel-shaped opening of a nephridium into the body cavity • norepinephrine a neurotransmitter found in the locus coeruleus which is synthesized from dopamine • ornithine an amino acid, which acts as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of urea • osmoconformer a marine organism (usually an invertebrate) that maintains its internal salinity such that it is always equal to the surrounding seawater • osmolarity The osmotic concentration of a solution, normally expressed as osmoles of solute per litre of solution. • osmoregulation the homeostatic regulation of osmotic pressure in the body in order to maintain a constant water content • osmosis The net movement of solvent molecules from a region of high solvent potential to a region of lower solvent potential through a partially permeable membrane • osmotic pressure the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a solution across a semipermeable membrane from a pure solvent • osmotic pressure the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a solution across a semipermeable membrane from a pure solvent • passive diffusion movement of water and other molecules across membranes along a concentration gradient Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System • purine any of a class of organic heterocyclic base containing fused pyrimidine and imidazole rings; they are components of nucleic acids • renal pertaining to the kidneys • renin a circulating enzyme released by mammalian kidneys that converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin-I that plays a role in maintaining blood pressure • stenohaline tolerant of only a narrow range of saltwater concentrations • urea a water-soluble organic compound, CO(NH2)2, formed by the metabolism of proteins and excreted in the urine • urea a water-soluble organic compound, CO(NH2)2, formed by the metabolism of proteins and excreted in the urine • ureotelic animals that secrete urea as the primary nitrogenous waste material • uric acid a bicyclic heterocyclic phenolic compound, formed in the body by the metabolism of protein and excreted in the urine • uric acid a bicyclic heterocyclic phenolic compound, formed in the body by the metabolism of protein and excreted in the urine • xanthine a precursor of uric acid found in many organs of the body Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system increases blood pressure and volume. The hormone ANP has antagonistic effects. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44828/latest/Figure_41_05_01.jpg View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Kidneys' location and function Kidneys filter the blood, producing urine that is stored in the bladder prior to elimination through the urethra. They are located in the peritoneal cavity. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44809/latest/Figure_41_03_01.jpg View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Diagram of a nephron The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The glomerulus and convoluted tubules of the nephron are located in the cortex of the kidney, while the collecting ducts are located in the pyramids of the kidney's medulla. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs Source: Boundless. “Kidney Structure.” Boundless Biology. Boundless, 08 Jan. 2016. Retrieved 19 Feb. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/osmotic-regulation-and-the-excretory-system-41/human-osmoregulatory- Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Salmon physiology responds to freshwater and seawater to maintain osmotic balance Fish are osmoregulators, but must use different mechanisms to survive in (a) freshwater or (b) saltwater environments. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44808/latest/Figure_41_01_02ab.jpg View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Nephron structure Each part of the nephron performs a different function in filtering waste and maintaining homeostatic balance. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44809/latest/Figure_41_03_04.jpg View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Urea Cycle The urea cycle converts ammonia to urea in five steps that include the catalyzation of five different enzymes. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Nitrogenous Wastes. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44811/latest/Figure_41_04_01.jpg View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Nitrogen excretion Nitrogenous waste is excreted in different forms by different species. These include (a) ammonia, (b) urea, and (c) uric acid. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Nitrogenous Wastes. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44811/latest/Figure_41_04_02abc.jpg View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Response of red blood cells in hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions Cells placed in a hypertonic environment tend to shrink due to loss of water. In a hypotonic environment, cells tend to swell due to intake of water. The blood maintains an isotonic environment so that cells neither shrink nor swell. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 23, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44808/latest/?collection=col11448/latest View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Adrenal gland The adrenal medulla, located toward the bottom of this image, is responsible for the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikipedia. "Gray1185." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray1185.png View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Concentration of solutions; part 2; moles, millimoles & milliequivalents by Professor Fink Professor Fink reviews the use of moles, millimoles & milliquivalents in expressing concentration and dosage. Example problems are presented explaining how to prepare molar solutions and convert to percent concentration. In addition, Professor Fink explains how to convert from millimoles to milliequivalents, or convert milliequivalents back to millimoles. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Transport across cell membranes Paul Andersen describes how cells move materials across the cell membrane. All movement can be classified as passive or active. Passive transport, such as diffusion, requires no energy as particles move along their gradient. Active transport requires additional energy as particles move against their gradient. Specific examples, such as GLUT and the Na/K, pump are included. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Flame cells and nephridia In the excretory system of the (a) planaria, cilia of flame cells propel waste through a tubule formed by a tube cell. In (b) annelids, nephridia filter fluid from the body cavity. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Excretion Systems. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44810/latest/Figure_41_02_02.jpg View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Contractile vacuole of Euglena Structure of Euglena: 1 - Flagellum; 2 - Eye spot / Pigment spot / Stigma; 3 - Photoreceptor; 4 - Short second flagellum; 5 - Reservoir; 6 - Basal body; 7 Contractile vacuole; 8 - Paramylon granule; 9 - Chloroplasts; 10 - Nucleus; 11 - Nucleolus; 12 - Pellicle Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Structure of Euglena - numbers." CC BY http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Structure_of_Euglena_-_numbers.svg View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Malpighian tubules in bees Malpighian tubules of insects and other terrestrial arthropods remove nitrogenous wastes and other solutes from the hemolymph. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Excretion Systems. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44810/latest/Figure_41_02_03.jpg View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Loop of Henle The loop of Henle acts as a countercurrent multiplier that uses energy to create concentration gradients. The descending limb is water permeable. Water flows from the filtrate to the interstitial fluid, so osmolality inside the limb increases as it descends into the renal medulla. At the bottom, the osmolality is higher inside the loop than in the interstitial fluid. Thus, as filtrate enters the ascending limb, Na+ and Cl- ions exit through ion channels present in the cell membrane. Further up, Na+ is actively transported out of the filtrate and Cl- follows. Osmolarity is given in units of milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L). Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44809/latest/Figure_41_03_05.png View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Structure of the kidney Externally, the kidney is surrounded by the renal fascia, the perirenal fat capsule, and the renal capsule. Internally, the kidney is most importantly filled with nephrons that filter blood and generate urine. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44809/latest/Figure_41_03_02.png View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Nephrons perform the main function of the kidney The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The glomerulus and convoluted tubules of the nephron are located in the cortex of the kidney, while collecting ducts are located in the pyramids of the kidney's medulla. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44809/latest/Figure_41_03_03.png View on Boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System Attribution • Wiktionary. "osmotic pressure." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/osmotic_pressure • Wiktionary. "osmosis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/osmosis • Wiktionary. "electrolyte." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/electrolyte • Wikipedia. "Osmoconformer." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmoconformer • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 23, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44807/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44808/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wikipedia. "facilitated diffusion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/facilitated%20diffusion • Wikipedia. "active transport." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/active%20transport • Wikipedia. "passive diffusion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/passive%20diffusion • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44808/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "osmotic pressure." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/osmotic_pressure • Wiktionary. "mole." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mole • Wiktionary. "molality." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/molality • Wiktionary. "molarity." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/molarity • Wikipedia. "Plasma osmolality." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_osmolality • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44808/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "osmoconformer." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/osmoconformer Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System • Wiktionary. "stenohaline." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stenohaline • Wiktionary. "euryhaline." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/euryhaline • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44808/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "renal." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/renal • Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The Urinary System." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_Urinary_System%23Nephrons • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44809/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "countercurrent." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/countercurrent • Wiktionary. "electrolyte." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/electrolyte • Wiktionary. "arteriole." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/arteriole • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44809/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "contractile vacuole." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/contractile_vacuole • Wiktionary. "hypertonic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypertonic • Wiktionary. "osmolarity." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/osmolarity • Wiktionary. "osmoregulation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/osmoregulation • Wikipedia. "Contractile vacuoles." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contractile_vacuoles • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44810/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "nephrostome." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nephrostome • Wiktionary. "nephridiopore." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nephridiopore Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com • Wiktionary. "nephridium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nephridium Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System • Wikipedia. "flame cell." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/flame%20cell • Wikipedia. "Nephridia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephridia • Wikipedia. "Flame cell." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_cell • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44810/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "uric acid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/uric_acid • Wiktionary. "hemolymph." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hemolymph • Wiktionary. "malpighian tubule." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/malpighian+tubule • Wikipedia. "Malpighian tubules." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighian_tubules • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44810/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "urea." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/urea • Wiktionary. "ornithine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ornithine • Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/ureotelic • Wikipedia. "Urea." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urea • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. December 2, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44811/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44811/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "uric acid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/uric_acid • Wiktionary. "hypoxanthine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypoxanthine • Wiktionary. "xanthine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/xanthine • Wiktionary. "purine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/purine Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System • Wikipedia. "guano." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/guano • Wiktionary. "urea." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/urea • Wikipedia. "Uric acid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uric_acid • Wikipedia. "Metabolic waste." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_waste • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. December 2, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44811/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44811/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "catecholamine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/catecholamine • Wiktionary. "norepinephrine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/norepinephrine • Wiktionary. "epinephrine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/epinephrine • Wiktionary. "adrenergic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adrenergic • Wikipedia. "Norepinephrine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine%23Mechanism • Wikipedia. "Epinephrine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrine%23Mechanism_of_action • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44828/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • Wiktionary. "angiotensin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/angiotensin • Wiktionary. "aquaporin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aquaporin • Wiktionary. "renin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/renin • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 23, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44828/latest/?collection=col11448/latest • OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44828/latest/?collection=col11448/latest Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com • OpebStax CNX. "The Kidneys." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:PixBa--0@8/The-Kidneys-and- Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System • Wikipedia. "Glomerulus." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomerulus • Wikitionary. "Loop of Henle." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/loop_of_Henle • Wikibooks. "The Urinary System." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_Urinary_System%23Nephrons Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com
