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Biotechnology • ~~ Marriage of biology & technology ~~ • Biotechnology used in industry – Genetic Engineering – Gene Therapy – Stem Cells / Stem Cell Transplant – Genetically Modified Organisms • food = plants / animals Another definition of biotechnology … • “The deliberate manipulation of DNA molecules to produce commercial products from living organisms.“ – Scientists are learning how to transfer genes from one animal, plant, or other organism into another Importance to you …? • • • • • • • Food / Crop yield Medicine / Health Issues Disease / illness – transplants Vaccines Livestock Law Enforcement (DNA Fingerprinting) Bioremediation Mouse: Mus musculus LE 21-3 Fertilized frog eggs: one week Fertilized egg of a frog Tadpole hatching from egg Restriction enzymes: • DNA Scissors • Restriction Microarray – Gene Chip Can determine thousands of different genes at one time LE 20-8 Cathode Power source Mixture of DNA molecules of different sizes Shorter molecules Gel Glass plates Anode Longer molecules Human Gene Therapy • Gene therapy is changing / putting in “good” genes • Gene therapy works best when disease is caused by only one defective gene • Vectors (viruses) are used for delivery of genes into cells LE 20-16 Cloned gene Insert RNA version of normal allele into retrovirus. Viral RNA Retrovirus capsid Let retrovirus infect bone marrow cells that have been removed from the patient and cultured. Viral DNA carrying the normal allele inserts into chromosome. Bone marrow cell from patient Inject engineered cells into patient. Bone marrow Forensic Evidence • DNA “fingerprints” from samples of body fluids or tissue can provide evidence in criminal and paternity cases • A DNA fingerprint is a specific pattern of bands LE 20-17 Defendant’s blood (D) Blood from defendant’s clothes Victim’s blood (V) Environmental Cleanup ”Bioremediation” • Genetic engineering can be used to design bacteria to clean up oil spills • Some bacteria can be used to degrade potentially toxic waste materials Agricultural Applications • DNA technology is being used to improve agricultural productivity and food quality Animal Husbandry and “Pharm” Animals • Transgenic organisms are made by introducing genes from one organism into the genome of another organism • Pharmaceutical “factories,” producers of antibiotics Safety and Ethical Questions Raised by DNA Technology • Potential benefits of genetic engineering must be weighed against potential hazards of creating harmful products or procedures • Most public concern is about: – genetically modified (GM) organisms Reproductive Cloning of Mammals • In 1997, Scotland – Dolly was the first mammal cloned (a lamb) – from a differentiated mammary cell • Dolly’s premature death in 2003, as well as her arthritis, led to speculation that her cells were “older” than those of a normal sheep LE 21-7 Mammary cell donor Egg cell donor Egg cell from ovary Cultured mammary cells are semistarved, arresting the cell cycle and causing dedifferentiation Nucleus removed Cells fused Nucleus from mammary cell Grown in culture Early embryo Implanted in uterus of a third sheep Surrogate mother Embryonic development Lamb (“Dolly”) genetically identical to mammary cell donor Cloning • Since 1997, cloning has been demonstrated in many mammals, including: – – – – – Mice Cats Cows Horses Pigs • “Copy Cat” was the first cat cloned “Copy Cat” The Stem Cells of Animals • A stem cell is an unspecialized (undifferentiated) cell that can reproduce itself indefinitely and differentiate into specialized cells of several types LE 21-9 Embryonic stem cells Totipotent cells Adult stem cells Pluripotent cells Cultured stem cells Different culture conditions Different Liver cells types of differentiated cells Nerve cells Blood cells HUMAN GENOME PROJECT Human Genome Project • 13-year project coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the NIH • GOALS: – identify the 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA – determine the sequences of the 3 billion base pairs – address the ethical, legal, and social issues that may arise from the project. EPIGENETICS You are more than your DNA University of Utah • http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epig enetics/intro/ • http://genome.ucsc.edu/cgibin/hgTracks?hgS_doOtherUser=submit& hgS_otherUserName=Kate&hgS_otherUs erSessionName=encodePortalSession NIH - Epigenomics • http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/epigenomics Epigenome Project • http://www.roadmapepigenomics.org/ Hox Genes • Help lay out the basic body forms of many animals – EX: humans, flies, and worms. • They set up the head-to-tail organization. • You can think of them as direct instructions as an embryo develops: – “Put the head here! Legs go over there!” Identity of Body Parts • Drosophila has master regulatory genes called homeotic genes = HOX Genes • Mutations to homeotic genes produce flies with strange traits, such as legs growing from the head in place of antennae LE 21-13 Eye Leg Antenna Wild type Mutant LE 21-14a Tail Head Wild-type larva Tail Tail Mutant larva (bicoid) Drosophila larvae with wild-type and bicoid mutant phenotypes Widespread Conservation of Developmental Genes Among Animals • Analysis of the hox genes in fruit flies has shown that they all include a sequence called a homeobox • An very similar sequence has been discovered in both vertebrates and invertebrates LE 21-23 Adult fruit fly Fruit fly embryo (10 hours) Fly chromosome Mouse chromosomes Mouse embryo (12 days) Adult mouse LE 21-24 Thorax Thorax Genital segments Abdomen Abdomen The End